Azerbaijani is the onlyofficial language in the Republic of Azerbaijan and one of the 14 official languages ofDagestan (afederal subject of Russia), but it does not have official status in Iran, where the majority ofIranian Azerbaijani people live. Azerbaijani is also spoken to lesser varying degrees in Azerbaijani communities ofGeorgia and Turkey and bydiaspora communities, primarily in Europe and North America.
Although there is a high degree ofmutual intelligibility between both forms of Azerbaijani, there are significant differences inphonology,lexicon,morphology,syntax, and sources ofloanwords. Thestandardized form of North Azerbaijani (spoken in the Republic of Azerbaijan and Russia) is based on theShirvani dialect, while South Azerbaijani uses a variety of regional dialects. Since the Republic of Azerbaijan's independence from theSoviet Union in 1991, Northern Azerbaijani has used the Latin script. On the other hand, South Azerbaijani has always used and continues to use thePerso-Arabic script.
Azerbaijani is closely related toTurkmen,Turkish,Gagauz, andQashqai, being mutually intelligible with each of these languages to varying degrees.
Etymology and background
Historically, the language was referred to by its native speakers astürk dili ortürkcə,[7] meaning either "Turkish" or "Turkic". In the early years following the establishment of theAzerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, the language was still referred to as "Turkic" in official documents. However, in the 1930s, its name was officially changed to "Azerbaijani".[8][9] The language is often still referred to asTurki orTorki (Turkish or Turkic) inIranian Azerbaijan.[10] The term "Azeri", generally interchangeable with "Azerbaijani", is from TurkishAzeri.[11] The 17th century Capuchin missionary Raphael du Mans used the expression "Turk Ajami" in relation to the Azerbaijani language. This term is used by many modern authors to designate the direct historical predecessor of the modern Azerbaijani language (seeMiddle Azerbaijani language).[12] The term is derived from earlier designations, such aslingua turcica agemica, orTurc Agemi, which was used in agrammar book composed by the French writerCapuchin Raphaël du Mans (died 1696) in 1684. Local texts simply called the languagetürkī.[13] During "theIsfahan phase of theSafavids", it was calledḳızılbaşī in contrast torūmī (Ottoman) andçaġatā’ī (Chagatai), due to its close relation to dialects spoken by theQizilbash.[14]
Ghazal commonly called "Apardı Könlümü" byIzzeddin Hasanoghlu which is considered the earliest known piece of literature in Azerbaijani Turkish by modern researchers, from the anthology Kitab-i Gulistan bil-Turki compiled by Seyfi Sarayi, published in 1391 and kept in the library of Leiden University
Azerbaijani evolved from the Eastern branch ofOghuz Turkic ("Western Turkic")[15] which spread to the Caucasus inEastern Europe[16][17] and northern Iran inWest Asia during the medievalTurkic migrations.[18]Persian andArabic influenced the language, but Arabic words were mainly transmitted through the intermediary of literary Persian.[19] Azerbaijani is, perhaps afterUzbek, the Turkic language upon which Persian and otherIranian languages have exerted the strongest impact—mainly in phonology, syntax, and vocabulary, less in morphology.[18]
During the period of theQara Qoyunlu andAq Qoyunlu states, Azerbaijani Turkic (in the sources of that period, "Turki") gradually began to emerge as a means of literary and poetic expression.[20]
During this period, writing in Turkic became fashionable in the court and among poets. The ruler of the Qara Qoyunlu,Jahanshah, was known by his pen name "Haqiqi", and the ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu,Sultan Yaqub, was known for writing poems in Turkic.[21]
The great Sufi poetQasim-i Anvar also accepted Turkic as a literary language and presented highly poetic examples in this language.[22]
The Turkic language of Azerbaijan gradually supplanted the Iranian languages in what is now northwestern Iran, and a variety oflanguages of the Caucasus andIranian languages spoken in theCaucasus, particularlyUdi andOld Azeri. By the beginning of the 16th century, it had become the dominant language of the region. It was one of the spoken languages in the court of theSafavids andQajars.
TheRussian annexation ofIran's territories in theCaucasus through theRusso-Iranian wars of1804–1813 and1826–1828 split the language community across two states. Afterwards, the Tsarist administration encouraged the spread of Azerbaijani in eastern Transcaucasia as a replacement for Persian spoken by the upper classes, and as a measure against Persian influence in the region.[23][24]
TheSoviet Union promoted the development of the language but set it back considerably with two successive script changes[25] – from thePersian toLatin and then to theCyrillic script – whileIranian Azerbaijanis continued to use the Persian script as they always had. Despite the wide use of Azerbaijani in theAzerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, it became the official language of Azerbaijan only in 1956.[26] After independence, the Republic of Azerbaijan decided to switch back to a modified Latin script.
The development of Azerbaijani literature is closely associated with Anatolian Turkish, written inPerso-Arabic script. Examples of its detachment date to the 14th century or earlier.[27][28]Kadi Burhan al-Din,Hasanoghlu, andImadaddin Nasimi helped to establish Azerbaiijani as a literary language in the 14th century throughpoetry and other works.[28] One ruler of theQara Qoyunlu state,Jahanshah, wrote poems in Azerbaijani language with the nickname "Haqiqi".[29][30]Sultan Yaqub, a ruler of theAq Qoyunlu state, wrote poems in the Azerbaijani language.[31] The ruler and poetIsmail I wrote under the pen nameKhatā'ī (which means "sinner" inPersian) during the fifteenth century.[9][32] During the 16th century, the poet, writer and thinkerFuzûlî wrote mainly in Azerbaijani but also translated his poems intoArabic andPersian.[9]
Starting in the 1830s, several newspapers were published in Iran during the reign of theQajar dynasty, but it is unknown whether any of these newspapers were written in Azerbaijani. In 1875,Akinchi (Əkinçi /اکينچی) ("The Ploughman") became the first Azerbaijani newspaper to be published in theRussian Empire. It was started byHasan bey Zardabi, ajournalist and education advocate.[28]
Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar is an important figure in Azerbaijani poetry. His most important work isHeydar Babaya Salam and it is considered to be a pinnacle ofAzerbaijani literature and gained popularity in the Turkic-speaking world. It was translated into more than 30 languages.[33]
In the mid-19th century, Azerbaijani literature was taught at schools inBaku,Ganja,Shaki,Tbilisi, andYerevan. Since 1845, it has also been taught in theSaint Petersburg State University inRussia. In 2018, Azerbaijani language and literature programs are offered in the United States at several universities, includingIndiana University,UCLA, andUniversity of Texas at Austin.[28] The vast majority, if not all Azerbaijani language courses teach North Azerbaijani written in the Latin script and not South Azerbaijani written in the Perso-Arabic script.
Modern literature in the Republic of Azerbaijan is primarily based on theShirvani dialect, while in theIranian Azerbaijan region (historic Azerbaijan) it is based on theTabrizi one.
Reza Shah andKemal Atatürk during the Shah's official visit to Turkey in 1934. Reza Shah spoke in South Azerbaijani while Atatürk spoke in Turkish, and the two leaders managed to communicate with each other quite effectively.
Azerbaijani is one of theOghuz languages within theTurkic language family.Ethnologue lists North Azerbaijani (spoken mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and Russia) and South Azerbaijani (spoken in Iran, Iraq, and Syria) as two groups within the Azerbaijanimacrolanguage with "significant differences in phonology, lexicon, morphology, syntax, and loanwords" between the two.[3] TheInternational Organization for Standardization (ISO) considers Northern and Southern Azerbaijani to be distinct languages.[42]Linguists Mohammad Salehi and Aydin Neysani write that "there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility" between North and South Azerbaijani.[42]
Svante Cornell wrote in his 2001 bookSmall Nations and Great Powers that "it is certain that Russian and Iranian words (sic), respectively, have entered the vocabulary on either side of theAraxes river, but this has not occurred to an extent that it could pose difficulties for communication".[43] There are numerous dialects, with 21 North Azerbaijani dialects and 11 South Azerbaijani dialects identified by Ethnologue.[3][4]
Three varieties have been accordedISO 639-3 language codes: North Azerbaijani, South Azerbaijani andQashqai. TheGlottolog 4.1 database classifies North Azerbaijani, with 20 dialects, and South Azerbaijani, with 13 dialects, under the Modern Azeric family, a branch of Central Oghuz.[44]
In the northern dialects of the Azerbaijani language, linguists find traces of the influence of theKhazar language.[45]
North Azerbaijani,[3] or Northern Azerbaijani, is theofficial language of theRepublic of Azerbaijan. It is closely related to modern-day Istanbul Turkish, the official language of Turkey. It is also spoken in southernDagestan, along theCaspian coast in the southernCaucasus Mountains and in scattered regions throughoutCentral Asia. As of 2011[update], there are some 9.23 million speakers of North Azerbaijani including 4 millionmonolingual speakers (many North Azerbaijani speakers also speak Russian, as is common throughout former USSR countries).[3]
The Shirvan dialect as spoken inBaku is the basis of standard Azerbaijani. Since 1992, it has been officially written with a Latin script in the Republic of Azerbaijan, but the older Cyrillic script was still widely used in the late 1990s.[46]
South Azerbaijani,[4] or Iranian Azerbaijani,[b] is widely spoken inIranian Azerbaijan and, to a lesser extent, in neighboring regions of Turkey andIraq, with smaller communities inSyria. InIran, thePersian word for Azerbaijani is borrowed asTorki "Turkic".[4] In Iran, it is spoken mainly inEast Azerbaijan,West Azerbaijan,Ardabil andZanjan. It is also spoken inTehran and across theTehran Province, as Azerbaijanis form by far the largest minority in the city and the wider province,[48] comprising about1⁄6[49][50] of its total population. The CIA World Factbook reports that in 2010, the percentage of Iranian Azerbaijani speakers was at around 16 percent of the Iranian population, or approximately 13 million people worldwide,[51] and ethnic Azeris form by far the second largest ethnic group of Iran, thus making the language also the second most spoken language in the nation. Ethnologue reports 10.9 million Azerbaijani-speakers in Iran in 2016 and 13,823,350 worldwide.[4]
Aynallu (often considered a separate language[52][53][54])
Karapapakh (often considered a separate language.[55] The second edition of theEncyclopaedia of Islam mentions that it is close to both "Āzerī and the Turkish of Turkey".[55] The historianGeorge Bournoutian only mentions that it is close to present-day Azeri-Türki.[56])
Speakers of Turkish and Azerbaijani can, to an extent, communicate with each other as both languages have substantial similarity. However, it is easier for many Azerbaijani speakers to understand Turkish than it is for Turkish speakers to understand Azerbaijani.[61]Turkish soap operas are very popular with Azeris in both Iran and Azerbaijan.Reza Shah Pahlavi ofIran (who spoke South Azerbaijani) met withMustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey (who spoke Turkish) in 1934; the two were filmed speaking their respective languages to each other and communicated effectively.[62][63]
In a 2011 study, 30 Turkish participants were tested to determine how well they understood written and spoken Azerbaijani. It was found that even though Turkish and Azerbaijani are typologically similar languages, on the part of Turkish speakers the intelligibility is not as high as is estimated.[64] In a 2017 study,Iranian Azerbaijanis scored in average 56% of receptive intelligibility in spoken Turkish.[65]
Azerbaijani exhibits a similar stress pattern to Turkish but simpler in some respects. Azerbaijani is a strongly stressed and partiallystress-timed language, unlike Turkish which is weakly stressed andsyllable-timed.[citation needed]
Below are some cognates with different spelling in Azerbaijani and Turkish:
The 1st person personal pronoun ismən in Azerbaijani just asmen inTurkmen, whereas it isben in Turkish. The same is true for demonstrative pronounsbu, where soundb is replaced with soundm. For example:bunun>munun/mının,muna/mına,munu/munı,munda/mında,mundan/mından.[67] This is observed in the Turkmen literary language as well, where thedemonstrative pronounbu undergoes some changes just as in:munuñ,munı,muña,munda,mundan,munça.[68]b>m replacement is encountered in many dialects of the Turkmen language and may be observed in such words as:boyun>moyın inYomut – Gunbatar dialect,büdüremek>müdüremek inErsari and Stavropol Turkmens' dialects,bol>mol inKarakalpak Turkmens' dialects,buzav>mizov in Kirac dialects.[69]
Here are some words from theSwadesh list to compare Azerbaijani with Turkmen:[70]
Azerbaijaniphonotactics is similar to that of other Oghuz Turkic languages, except:
Trimoraic syllables with long vowels are permissible.
There is an ongoingmetathesis of neighboring consonants in a word.[71] Speakers tend to reorder consonants in the order of decreasing sonority and back-to-front (for example, iləri becomes irəli, köprü becomes körpü, topraq becomes torpaq). Some of the metatheses are so common in the educated speech that they are reflected in orthography (all the above examples are like that). This phenomenon is more common in rural dialects but observed even in educated young urban speakers, but noticeably absent from some Southern dialects.
Outside Iran, the sound[k] is used only in loanwords; the historical unpalatalized[k] became voiced to[ɡ], and was only preserved in Iran.
/t͡ʃ/ and/d͡ʒ/ are realised as[t͡s] and[d͡z] respectively in the areas around Tabriz and to the west, south and southwest ofTabriz (includingKirkuk in Iraq); in theNakhchivan andAyrum dialects, inCəbrayil and some Caspian coastal dialects;.[72]
Sounds/t͡s/ and/d͡z/ may also be recognized as separate phonemic sounds in the Tabrizi and southern dialects.[73]
In most dialects of Azerbaijani,/c/ is realized as[ç] when it is found in thesyllabic coda or is preceded by avoiceless consonant (as inçörək[t͡ʃœˈɾæç] – "bread";səksən[sæçˈsæn] – "eighty").
The F1 and F2 formant frequencies overlap for/œ/ and/ɯ/. Theiracoustic quality is more or less close-mid central[ɵ,ɘ]. The main role in the distinction of two vowels is played by the different F3 frequencies in audition,[82] and rounding in articulation. Phonologically, however, they are more distinct:/œ/ is phonologically a mid front rounded vowel, the front counterpart of/o/ and the rounded counterpart of/e/./ɯ/ is phonologically a close back unrounded vowel, the back counterpart of/i/ and the unrounded counterpart of/u/.
The other mid vowels/e,o/ are closer to close-mid[e,o] than open-mid[ɛ,ɔ].[81]
The modern Azerbaijani Latin alphabet contains the digraphsov andöv to represent diphthongs present in the language, and the pronunciation of diphthongs is today accepted as the norm in the orthophony of Azerbaijani.[83] Despite this, the number and even the existence of diphthongs in Azerbaijani has been disputed, with some linguists, such asAbdulazal Damirchizade [az], arguing that they are non-phonemic. Damirchizade's view was challenged by others, such asAghamusa Akhundov [az], who argued that Damirchizade was taking orthography as the basis of his judgement, rather than its phonetic value. According to Akhundov, Azerbaijani contains two diphthongs,/ou̯/ and/œy̯/,[85] represented byov andöv in the alphabet, both of which are phonemic due to their contrast with/o/ and/œ/, represented byo andö.[86] In some cases, a non-syllabic/v/ can also be pronounced after the aforementioned diphthongs, to form/ou̯v/ and/œy̯v/, the rules of which are as follows:[87]
If the lettero precedesv and thenu, formingovu, it should be pronounced as/ou̯/, e.g.sovurmaq,pronounced[sou̯rˈmɑx].
If the lettero precedesv and then any consonant, it should be pronounced as/ou̯(v)/, with the pronunciation of thev being optional, e.g.dovşan,pronounced[dou̯(v)ˈʃɑn].
If the letterö precedesv and then anyvoiced consonant, it should be pronounced as/œy̯(v)/, with the pronunciation of thev being optional, e.g.tövbə,pronounced[tœy̯(v)ˈbæ].
Modern linguists who have examined Azerbaijani's vowel system almost unanimously have recognised that diphthongs are phonetically produced in speech.[88]
Before 1929, Azerbaijani was written only in thePerso-Arabic alphabet, animpure abjad that does not represent all vowels (withoutdiacritical marks). In Iran, the process of standardization of orthography started with the publication of Azerbaijani magazines and newspapers such asVarlıq (وارلیق —Existence) from 1979. Azerbaijani-speaking scholars and literarians showed great interest in involvement in such ventures and in working towards the development of a standard writing system. These effort culminated in language seminars being held inTehran, chaired by the founder ofVarlıq,Javad Heyat, in 2001 where a document outlining the standard orthography and writing conventions were published for the public.[5] This standard of writing is today canonized by a Persian–Azeri Turkic dictionary in Iran titledLoghatnāme-ye Torki-ye Āzarbāyjāni.[89]
Between 1929 and 1938, a Latin alphabet was in use for North Azerbaijani, although it was different from the one used now. From 1938 to 1991, theCyrillic script was used. Lastly, in 1991, the current Latin alphabet was introduced, although the transition to it has been rather slow.[90] For instance, until anAliyev decree on the matter in 2001,[91] newspapers would routinely write headlines in the Latin script, leaving the stories in Cyrillic.[92] The transition has also resulted in some misrendering ofİ asÌ.[93][94] In Dagestan, Azerbaijani is still written in Cyrillic script.
The Azerbaijani Latin alphabet is based on the Turkish Latin alphabet. In turn, the Turkish Latin alphabet was based on former Azerbaijani Latin alphabet because of their linguistic connections and mutual intelligibility. The lettersӘə,Xx, andQq are available only in Azerbaijani for sounds which do not exist as separate phonemes in Turkish.
Old Latin (1929–1938 version; no longer in use; replaced by 1991 version)
Official Latin (Azerbaijan since 1991)
Cyrillic (1958 version, still official in Dagestan)
Northern Azerbaijani, unlike Turkish, respells foreign names to conform with Latin Azerbaijani spelling, e.g.Bush is spelledBuş andSchröder becomesŞröder. Hyphenation across lines directly corresponds to spoken syllables, except for geminated consonants which are hyphenated as two separate consonants as morphonology considers them two separate consonants back to back but enunciated in the onset of the latter syllable as a single long consonant, as in otherTurkic languages.[citation needed]
بُتون إنسانلَر لَیاقَت و حُقوقلَرینه گوره آزاد و بَرابَر طوغُلورلَر. اونلَرِݣ شعورلَری و وِجدانلَری وار و بِر بِرلَرینه مُناسِبَتده قَرداشلِق روحنده طاورانمهلیدِرلَر
Arabic script (1926–1928):
بۆتون اینسانلار لیاقت و حۆقوقلارینا گؤره آزاد و برابر دوْغولورلار. اوٓنلارین شۆعورلاری و ویجدانلاری وار و بیر-بیرلرینه مۆناسیبتده قارداشلیق روحوندا داورانمالیدیرلار
Butun insanlar ləjakət və hukykları̡na ƣɵrə azad və bərabər dogylyrlar. Onları̡ŋ зuyrları̡ və vicdanları̡ var və bir-birlərinə munasibətdə kardaзlı̡k ryhynda davranmalı̡dı̡rlar.
Bytyn insanlar ləjaqət və hyquqlarьna gɵrə azad və вəraвər doƣulurlar. Onlarьŋ şyurlarь və viçdanlarь var və вir-вirlərinə mynasiвətdə qardaşlьq ruhunda davranmalьdьrlar.
Bütün insanlar läyaqät vä hüquqlarına görä azad vä bärabär doğulurlar. Onların şüurları vä vicdanları var vä bir-birlärinä münasibätdä qardaşlıq ruhunda davranmalıdırlar.
Latin script (1992–present):
Bütün insanlar ləyaqət və hüquqlarına görə azad və bərabər doğulurlar. Onların şüurları və vicdanları var və bir-birlərinə münasibətdə qardaşlıq ruhunda davranmalıdırlar.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Vocabulary
Interjections
Some samples include:
Secular:
Of ("Ugh!")
Tez Ol ("Be quick!")
Invoking deity:
implicitly:
Aman ("Mercy")
Çox şükür ("Much thanks")
explicitly:
Allah Allah (pronounced asAllahallah) ("Goodness gracious")
Azerbaijani has informal and formal ways of saying things. This is because there is a strongtu-vous distinction in Turkic languages like Azerbaijani and Turkish (as well as in many other languages). The informal "you" is used when talking to close friends, relatives, animals or children. The formal "you" is used when talking to someone who is older than the speaker or to show respect (to a professor, for example).
As in many Turkic languages, personal pronouns can be omitted, and they are only added for emphasis.
Since 1992, North Azerbaijani has used a phonetic writing system, so pronunciation is easy: most words are pronounced exactly as they are spelled. However, the combinationqq in words is pronounced[kɡ], as the firstvoiced velar stop isdevoiced when it isgeminated, such as inçaqqal,pronounced[t͡ʃɑkɡɑl].[95][96]
Professor Christiane Bulut has argued that publications from Azerbaijan often use expressions such as "Azerbaijani (dialects) of Iraq" or "South Azerbaijani" to describe Iraqi Turkmen dialects "with political implications"; however, in Turcological literature, closely related dialects in Turkey and Iraq are generally referred to as "eastern Anatolian" or "Iraq-Turkic/-Turkman" dialects, respectively.[1]
^Since Azerbaijan's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, northern Azerbaijani uses the Latin alphabet. Iranian Azerbaijani, on the other hand, has always used and continues to use Arabic script.[47]
^Bulut, Christiane (2018b). "The Turkic varieties of Iran". In Haig, Geoffrey; Khan, Geoffrey (eds.).The Languages and Linguistics of Western Asia: An Areal Perspective.Walter de Gruyter. p. 398.ISBN978-3-11-042168-2.
^Goyushov, Altay (26 September 2018)."The Language of Azerbaijan: Turkish or Azerbaijani?".Baku Research Institute. Retrieved23 August 2023.However, in 1936–1937, the situation changed fundamentally. Even though there was no explicit mention of an enactment of state language in local Azerbaijani laws, the term "Turkish" was substituted by "Azerbaijani" in state and court documents. Later in 1956, "Azerbaijani" was given the status of the official state language of Soviet Azerbaijan. This was also mentioned in Soviet Azerbaijan's last Constitution adopted in 1978.
^abcdDoerfer, G. (2011)."Azerbaijan". InYarshater, Ehsan (ed.).Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. III/3: Azerbaijan IV–Bačča(-ye) Saqqā (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. § viii. Azeri Turkish, pp. 245–248.
^Rahmati, Nemat (1998).Aserbaidschanisch Lehrbuch : unter Berücksichtigung des Nord- und Südaserbaidschanischen. Korkut M. Buğday. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.ISBN978-3-447-03840-9.OCLC40415729.
^Stevenson, Angus (2010).Oxford dictionary of English. Oxford University Press. p. 113.ISBN9780199571123.
^Stein, Heidi (2014). "Ajem-Turkic". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
^In Honor of the Turkologist!: Essays Celebrating the 70th Birthday of Ekrem Čaušević. Zagreb: Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb. 2022. pp. 103–105.ISBN978-953-175-937-3.
^"The Turkic Languages", Osman Fikri Sertkaya (2005) inTurks – A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600, LondonISBN978-1-90397-356-1
^Wright, Sue; Kelly, Helen (1998).Ethnicity in Eastern Europe: Questions of Migration, Language Rights and Education. Multilingual Matters Ltd. p. 49.ISBN978-1-85359-243-0.
^Bratt Paulston, Christina; Peckham, Donald (1 October 1998).Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe. Multilingual Matters Ltd. pp. 98–115.ISBN978-1-85359-416-8.
^abJohanson, Lars (2011)."Azerbaijan". InYarshater, Ehsan (ed.).Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. III/3: Azerbaijan IV–Bačča(-ye) Saqqā (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. § ix. Iranian Elements in Azeri Turkish, pp. 248–251.
^John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Csatóet al. (2005)Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic, Routledge, p. 97: "It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contiguous Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth centuries CE..."
^Claus Schönig, Turkic languages and literatures in the Timurid and post-Timurid period, in: The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 6, Cambridge University Press, 1986.→ s. 708–710
^Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi, İstanbul (Turkish): Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1926.s. 96–101
^Gerhard Doerfer, Türkische und mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, Bd. 2, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1963. s. 350–352
^Tonoyan, Artyom (2019). "On the Caucasian Persian (Tat) Lexical Substratum in the Baku Dialect of Azerbaijani. Preliminary Notes".Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft.169 (2): 368 (note 4).doi:10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.169.2.0367.S2CID211660063.
^Karpat, K. (2001).The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Oxford University Press. p. 295.
^abcdÖztopcu, Kurtulus."Azeri / Azerbaijani".American Association of Teachers of Turkic Languages. Archived fromthe original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved5 February 2020.
^Javadi, Hasan; Burrill, Kathleen (2012)."Azerbaijan". InYarshater, Ehsan (ed.).Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. III/3: Azerbaijan IV–Bačča(-ye) Saqqā (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. § x. Azeri Turkish Literature, pp. 251–255.The 15th century saw the beginning of a more important period in the history of the Azeri Turkish literature. The position of the literary language was reinforced under the Qarāqoyunlu (r. 1400–68), who had their capital in Tabriz. Jahānšāh (r. 1438–68) himself wrote lyrical poems in Turkish using the pen name of 'Ḥaqiqi.'
^V. Minorsky. Jihān-Shāh Qara-Qoyunlu and His Poetry (Turkmenica, 9). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. — Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies, 1954. — V.16, p . 272, 283:«It is somewhat astonishing that a sturdy Turkman like Jihan-shah should have been so restricted in his ways of expression. Altogether the language of the poems belongs to the group of the southern Turkman dialects which go by the name of Azarbayjan Turkish.»;«As yet nothing seems to have been published on the Br. Mus. manuscript Or. 9493, which contains the bilingual collection of poems of Haqiqi, i.e. of the Qara-qoyunlu sultan Jihan-shah (A.D. 1438—1467).»
^Javadi, Hasan; Burrill, Kathleen (2012)."Azerbaijan". InYarshater, Ehsan (ed.).Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. § x. Azeri Turkish Literature.He wrote amaṯnawi entitledYusof wa Zoleyḵā, and dedicated it to the Aqqoyunlu Sultan Yaʿqub (r. 1478–90), who himself wrote poetry in Azeri Turkish. Adapted fromJavadi, Hasan; Burrill, Kathleen (1988)."Azerbaijan". InYarshater, Ehsan (ed.).Encyclopædia Iranica. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. § x. Azeri literature.He wrote amaṯnawī entitledYūsof wa Zoleyḵā, and dedicated it to the Āq Qoyunlū Sultan Yaʿqūb (r. 883-96/1478-90), who himself wrote poetry in Azeri.
^Pieter Muysken, "Introduction: Conceptual and methodological issues in areal linguistics", in Pieter Muysken (2008)From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics, p. 30-31ISBN978-90-272-3100-0[1]
^Viacheslav A. Chirikba, "The problem of the Caucasian Sprachbund" in Muysken, p. 74
^Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie. Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. – Elsevier, 2009. – С. 110–113. –ISBN978-0-08-087774-7. An Azerbaijanian koine´ functioned for centuries as a lingua franca, serving trade and intergroup communication all over Persia, in the Caucasus region and in southeastern Dagestan. Its transregional validity continued at least until the 18th century.
^J. N. Postgate (2007)Languages of Iraq, p. 164, British School of Archaeology in IraqISBN978-0-903472-21-0
^Homa Katouzian (2003)Iranian history and politics, Routledge, pg 128: "Indeed, since the formation of the Ghaznavids state in the tenth century until the fall of Qajars at the beginning of the twentieth century, most parts of the Iranian cultural regions were ruled by Turkic-speaking dynasties most of the time. At the same time, the official language was Persian, the court literature was in Persian, and most of the chancellors, ministers, and mandarins were Persian speakers of the highest learning and ability"
^Stöber, Georg (2010). "Afshār". In Fleet, Kate;Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;Rowson, Everett(eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online.ISSN 1873-9830. Linguistically, Afshārī is classified as a dialect belonging to the South Oghuz group of Turkic languages (southwestern branch of Turkic) (Johanson, History of Turkic, 82–3), or else as a dialect of South Azerbaijani (Azeri). As they were embedded in a Fārsī-speaking environment, however, in many cases Fārsī became the mother tongue of the Afshārs. Other groups became bilingual (as in Kirmān). Additionally, the contact between the different languages seems to have transformed the original dialect (cf. Johanson, Discoveries, 14–6). In 2009 a linguistic comparison of different Afshār groups remains outstanding.
^Mudrak, Oleg (30 April 2009)."Language in time. Classification of Turkic languages (in Russian)".centrasia.org (in Russian).Распад туркменско-азербайджанского. Несмотря на все уверения, что азербайджанский является ближайшим родственником турецкого, это не так. Наиболее близким к нему (азербайджанскому) является туркменский. Распад этого единства попадает примерно на 1180-й год. Это удивительно. Потому что тогда как раз был конец Империи Великих Сельджуков. <...> Интересная дата – это распад огузской общности и выделение турецкого языка. Это примерно 1030-й год. Это самое начало 11-го века. Это очень интересно, потому что как раз в это время начинается миграция сельджуков. <...> Собственно сердце турецкого языка – это район Рума в Восточной Анатолии, где сидит тюркское население.
^Berdiev R.; S. Kurenov; K. Shamuradov; S. Arazkuliyev (1970).Essay on the Dialects of the Turkmen Language. Ashgabat. p. 116.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Ameli, Seyed Hassan (2021).لغتنامه ترکی آذربایجانی: حروف آ (جلد ۱ (in Persian and Azerbaijani). Mohaghegh Ardabili.ISBN978-600-344-624-3.
^Dooley, Ian (6 October 2017)."New Nation, New Alphabet: Azerbaijani Children's Books in the 1990s".Cotsen Children's Library (in English and Azerbaijani). Princeton University WordPress Service. Retrieved13 December 2017.Through the 1990s and early 2000s Cyrillic script was still in use for newspapers, shops, and restaurants. Only in 2001 did then president Heydar Aliyev declare "a mandatory shift from the Cyrillic to the Latin alphabet" ... The transition has progressed slowly.
Bournoutian, George (2017). "The Population of the South Caucasus according to the 1897 General Census of the Russian Empire".Iran and the Caucasus.21 (3):324–340.doi:10.1163/1573384X-20170307.
Mokari, Payam Ghaffarvand; Werner, Stefan (2017). "Azerbaijani".Journal of the International Phonetic Association.47 (2): 207.doi:10.1017/S0025100317000184.S2CID232347049.
Mustafayev, Shahin (2013). "Ethnolinguistic Processes in the Turkic Milieu of Anatolia and Azerbaijan (14th–15th Centuries)". InLascu, Stoica; Fetisleam, Melek (eds.).Contemporary Research in Turkology and Eurasian Studies: A Festschrift in Honor of Professor Tasin Gemil on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday. Cluj-Napoca:Cluj University Press. pp. 333–346.ISBN978-973-595-622-6.
1These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas. 2State with limited international recognition.
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