| Lancaster | |
|---|---|
.jpg) | |
| Lancaster B.IPA474[note 1] of the RAF Battle of Britain Memorial Flight in 460 Squadron (RAAF) colours | |
| General information | |
| Type | Heavy bomber |
| National origin | United Kingdom |
| Manufacturer | Avro |
| Designer | |
| Built by | Avro andfive others (in UK & Canada) |
| Primary users | Royal Air Force |
| Number built | 7,377[1] |
| History | |
| Introduction date | February 1942 |
| First flight | 9 January 1941 |
| Retired | April 1, 1964Royal Canadian Air Force |
| Developed from | Avro Manchester |
| Variant | Avro Lancastrian |
| Developed into | Avro York Avro Lincoln |
TheAvro Lancaster, commonly known as theLancaster Bomber, is a BritishSecond World Warheavy bomber. It was designed and manufactured byAvro as a contemporary of theHandley Page Halifax, both bombers having been developed to the same specification, as well as theShort Stirling, all three aircraft being four-engined heavy bombers adopted by theRoyal Air Force (RAF) during the same era.
The Lancaster has its origins in the twin-engineAvro Manchester which had been developed during the late 1930s in response to theAir MinistrySpecification P.13/36 for amedium bomber for "world-wide use" which could carry a torpedo internally, and make shallow dive-bombing attacks. Originally developed as an evolution of the Manchester (which had proved troublesome in service and was retired in 1942), the Lancaster was designed byRoy Chadwick and powered by fourRolls-Royce Merlins and in one of the versions,Bristol Hercules engines. It first saw service withRAF Bomber Command in 1942 and as thestrategic bombing offensive over Europe gathered momentum, it was the main aircraft for the night-time bombing campaigns that followed. As increasing numbers of the type were produced, it became the principalheavy bomber used by the RAF, theRoyal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and squadrons from otherCommonwealth and European countries serving within the RAF, overshadowing the Halifax and Stirling, two other commonly used bombers.[2]
A long, unobstructed bomb bay meant that the Lancaster could take the largest bombs used by the RAF, including the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg), 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) and 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) "blockbusters", loads often supplemented with smaller bombs orincendiaries. The "Lanc", as it was known colloquially,[3] became one of the most heavily used of the Second World War night bombers, delivering 608,612 long tons (618,378,000 kg) of bombs in 156,000 sorties.[4] The versatility of the Lancaster was such that it was chosen to equip617 Squadron and was modified to carry theUpkeep "bouncing bomb" designed byBarnes Wallis forOperation Chastise, the attack on GermanRuhr valley dams. Although the Lancaster was primarily a night bomber, it excelled in many other roles, including daylight precision bombing, for which some Lancasters were adapted to carry the 12,000 lb (5,400 kg)Tallboy and then the 22,000 lb (10,000 kg)Grand Slamearthquake bombs (also designed by Wallis).[5] This was the largest payload of any bomber in the war.
In 1943, a Lancaster was converted to become an engine test bed for theMetropolitan-Vickers F.2turbojet. Lancasters were later used to test other engines, including theArmstrong Siddeley Mamba andRolls-Royce Dartturboprops and theAvro Canada Orenda andSTAL Dovern turbojets. Postwar, the Lancaster was supplanted as the main strategic bomber of the RAF by theAvro Lincoln, a larger version of the Lancaster. The Lancaster took on the role of long rangeanti-submarine patrol aircraft (later supplanted by theAvro Shackleton) and air-sea rescue. It was also used for photo-reconnaissance and aerial mapping, as a flying tanker foraerial refuelling and as theAvro Lancastrian, a long-range, high-speed, transatlantic passenger and postal delivery airliner. In March 1946, a Lancastrian ofBSAA flew the first scheduled flight from the newLondon Heathrow Airport.[6]
In the 1930s, theRoyal Air Force (RAF) was primarily interested in twin-enginebombers.[7] These designs put limited demands on engine production and maintenance, both of which were already stretched with the introduction of so many new types into service. Power limitations were so serious that the British invested heavily in the development of huge engines in the 2,000 hp (1,500 kW) class in order to improve performance. During the late 1930s, none of these were ready for production. Both theUnited States and theSoviet Union were pursuing the development of bombers powered by arrangements of four smaller engines; the results of these projects proved to possess favourable characteristics such as excellent range and fair lifting capacity. Accordingly, in 1936, the RAF also decided to investigate the feasibility of the four-engined bomber.[7]
The origins of the Lancaster stem from a twin-engined bomber that had been submitted to BritishAir MinistrySpecification P.13/36 of 1936 for a twin-enginedmedium bomber for "worldwide use" which could carry a torpedo internally, and make shallow dive-bombing attacks.[8][9] Further requirements of the specification included the use of a mid-mountedcantilevermonoplane wing, and all-metal construction while the use of theRolls-Royce Vulture, which was in development was encouraged.[10] Twin-engine designs were submitted byFairey,Boulton Paul,Handley Page andShorts, usingRolls-Royce Vulture,Napier Sabre,Fairey P.24 orBristol Hercules engines. Most of these engines were still under development and while four-engined bomber designs were considered for specification B.12/36 for a heavy bomber, the extra engines required the wing and overall aircraft structure to be stronger, increasing the structural weight.[11]
Avro submitted theAvro 679 to fulfil Specification P.13/36 and, in February 1937, Avro's submission was selected, along with Handley Page's bid as a backup. In April 1937, a pair of prototypes for each design was ordered.[12][10] Avro's aircraft, named the Manchester, entered RAF service in November 1940. Although a capable aircraft, the Manchester was underpowered and its Vulture engines proved to be unreliable.[13][14] As a result, only 200 were constructed and the type was withdrawn from service in 1942.[15]
By mid-1940, Avro's chief design engineer,Roy Chadwick, was working on an improved Manchester[13] powered by four of the more reliable but less powerfulRolls-Royce Merlin engines, specifically adopting the"Power-egg" installation developed for theBeaufighter II, and installed on a wing of increased span.[16] Initially, the improved aircraft was designated as theType 683 Manchester III but was subsequently renamed theLancaster. The prototype,serial numberBT308, was assembled by the Avro experimental flight department atRingway Airport,Manchester, being modified from a production Manchester airframe, combined with the new wing to accommodate the additional engines.[13] The first flight was made by test pilot H. A. "Sam" Brown on 9 January 1941 atRAF Ringway,Cheshire.[17]
Flight testing of the new aircraft quickly proved it to be a substantial improvement over its predecessor.[18] The first prototype was initially outfitted with the Manchester I's three-finned tail but this was revised on the second prototype,DG595, and subsequent production Lancasters used the larger ellipticaltwin-finned tail unit that was also adopted for the last Manchesters built.[13] This not only increased stability but also improved the dorsal gun turret's field of fire. The second prototype was also fitted with more powerful Merlin XX engines.[13]
Manchesters still on the production line were converted into Lancaster B.Is.[13][17] Based upon its performance, a decision was taken early on to reequip twin-engine bomber squadrons with the Lancaster as quickly as possible.[13]L7527, The first production Lancaster made its first flight in October 1941, powered by Merlin XX engines.[13][17]
Avro received an initial contract for 1,070 Lancasters.[13] The majority of Lancasters manufactured during the war years were constructed by Avro at its factory atChadderton nearOldham,Lancashire and were test-flown fromWoodford Aerodrome inCheshire. As it was quickly recognised that Avro's capacity was exceeded by the wartime demand for the type, it was decided to form theLancaster Aircraft Group, which comprised a number of companies that undertook the type's manufacture, either performing primary assembly themselves or producing various subsections and components for the other participating manufacturers.[19]Wythenshawe Bus Garage, built ofreinforced concrete during 1939–42 and designed by the ManchesterCity Architect,G. Noel Hill, was immediately taken over by theMinistry of Aircraft Production and Avro used it in its Lancaster aircraft production.[20]
In addition to Avro, further Lancasters were constructed byMetropolitan-Vickers (1,080, also tested at Woodford) andArmstrong Whitworth. They were also produced at theAustin Motor Company works inLongbridge,Birmingham, later in the Second World War and post-war byVickers-Armstrongs atChester as well as at the Vickers Armstrong factory, Castle Bromwich, Birmingham.Belfast-based aircraft firmShort Brothers had also received an order for 200 Lancaster B.Is, but this was cancelled before any aircraft had been completed.[21][22]
The Lancaster was also produced overseas. During early 1942, it was decided that the bomber should be produced in Canada, where it was manufactured byVictory Aircraft inMalton, Ontario.[23] Of later variants, only the Canadian-builtLancaster B X was produced in significant numbers. A total of 430 of this type were built, earlier examples differing little from their British-built predecessors, except for usingPackard-builtMerlin engines and American-style instruments and electrics.[citation needed] In August 1942, a British-built Lancaster B.I was dispatched to Canada as a pattern aircraft, becoming the first of the type to conduct atransatlantic crossing.[23] The first Lancaster produced in Canada was named the "Ruhr Express".[note 2][citation needed] The first batch of Canadian Lancasters delivered to England suffered from faulty ailerons; this error was subsequently traced to the use of unskilled labour.[24] By the end of the conflict, over 10,000 Canadians were employed on the production line, which was producing one Lancaster each day.[25]
| Manufacturer | Location | Number produced |
|---|---|---|
| A. V. Roe | Woodford | 2,978 |
| Chadderton | ||
| Yeadon | 695 | |
| Armstrong Whitworth | Whitley | 1,329 |
| Austin Motors | Longbridge | 330 |
| Marston Green | ||
| Metropolitan-Vickers | Trafford Park | 1,080 |
| Vickers-Armstrongs | Castle Bromwich | 300 |
| Chester | 235 | |
| Victory Aircraft | Malton (Canada) | 430 |
The Lancaster B.I was never fully superseded in production by a successor model, remaining in production until February 1946.[21] According to aviation authors Brian Goulding and M. Garbett, the Lancaster B.I altered little during its production life, partially as a result of the sound basic structure and design; of the visible changes, the fuselage side windows were deleted, thePerspex chin of the bomb-aimer was enlarged, and a largerastrodome was provided.[26] Various additional bumps andblisters were also added, which typically housedradar equipment andradio navigational aids. Some Lancaster B.I bombers were outfitted with bulged bomb bay doors in order to accommodate increased armament payloads.[26]
Early production Lancaster B.Is were outfitted with a ventral gun turret position.[23] In response to feedback on the lack of application for the ventral turret, the ventral turret was often eliminated during the course of each aircraft's career. While some groups chose to discard the position entirely, various trials and experiments were performed atRAF Duxford,Cambridgeshire and by individual squadrons.[23] A total of 50 Austin-built Lancaster B.Is was constructed to a non-standard configuration, having a Frazer Nash turret installed directly above the bomb bay; however, this modification was largely unpopular due to its obstruction of the internal walkway, hindering crew movements. Various other turret configurations were adopted by individual squadrons, which included the removal of various combinations of turrets.[27]
TheLancaster B.III was powered byPackard Merlin engines, which had been built overseas in theUnited States, but was otherwise identical to contemporary B.Is.[21] In total, 3,030 B.IIIs were constructed, almost all of them at Avro'sNewton Heath factory. The Lancaster B.I and B.III were manufactured concurrently and minor modifications were made to both marks as further batches were ordered. The B.I and B.III designations were effectively interchangeable simply by changing the engines used, which was occasionally done in practice.[21] Examples of modifications made include the relocation of thepitot head from the nose to the side of the cockpit and the change from de Havilland "needle blade" propellers toHamilton Standard orNash Kelvinator made "paddle blade" propellers.[28]
The Avro Lancaster was a British four-enginedstrategic bomber that was used as the RAF's principal heavy bomber during the latter half of the Second World War. The typical aircraft was powered by an arrangement of four wing-mountedRolls-Royce Merlin piston engines, each of which drove a 13 ft (4.0 m) diameterde Havilland Hydromatic three-bladedpropeller. While not optimal, the Lancaster was capable of flying the return journey home on only two operational engines, along with very limited distances on a single running engine.[21] Aviation authors Brian Goulding and M. Garbett have claimed that experienced Lancaster pilots were often able to out-manoeuver Luftwaffe fighters.[29] It possessed largely favourable flying characteristics, having been described by Goulding and Garbett as being: "a near-perfect flying machine, fast for its size and very smooth...such a delightfully easy aeroplane to fly...there are instances of Lancasters having been looped and barrel-rolled, both intentionally and otherwise".[29]
The Lancaster benefited from a structure that possessed considerable strength and durability, which had been intentionally designed to maximise structural strength-per-weight; this resulted in the Lancaster being capable of withstanding some levels of damage resulting from attacks by hostileinterceptor aircraft and ground-basedanti-aircraft batteries.[21] However, during the first year of the type's career, some instances of structural failures were encountered on Lancaster B.Is and a number of aircraft were lost in accidents as a result of the design limitations having been greatly exceeded.[29]
The Lancaster uses a mid-wingcantilevermonoplane configuration. The wing is constructed from five separate main sections while the fuselage is likewise composed of five sections. Aside from a few elements, such as thefabric-coveredailerons, the Lancaster's oval-shaped fuselage had an all-metal covering.[23] All of the wing and fuselage sections were manufactured separately, during which they were outfitted with all of the required equipment in advance of final assembly being performed, as a measure intended to accelerate the rate of production. The Lancaster was equipped with a retractable mainundercarriage and fixed tailwheel; thehydraulically-actuated main landing gear raised rearwards into recesses within the inner engine nacelles.[30] The distinctive tail unit of the aircraft was outfitted with a large twin elliptical fins andrudder arrangement.[29]
Like any aeroplane, the Lancaster was not viceless in its handling. In a dive, it had a tendency to go more deeply into the dive as speed increased. Not all aeroplanes did this, for example, the Halifax tended to get increasingly tail-heavy as speed increased, and thus fly itself out of the dive.[31] Furthermore, the Lancaster suffered longitudinal instability at speeds above 200 mph (320 km/h).[32]
The standard crew for a Lancaster consisted of seven men, stationed in various positions in the fuselage. Starting at the nose, thebomb aimer had two positions to man. His primary location was lying prone on the floor of the nose of the aircraft, with access to thebombsight controls facing forward, with theMark XIV bomb sight on his left and bomb release selectors on the right. He also used his view through the large transparent perspex nose cupola to assist the navigator with map reading.[citation needed] To man the Frazer Nash FN5 nose turret, he stood up placing himself in position behind the triggers of the twin .303 in (7.7 mm) guns. Ammunition for the turret was 1,000 rounds per gun. The bomb aimer's position contained the nose emergency hatch in the floor.
Compared with other contemporary aircraft, the Lancaster was not an easy aircraft to escape from as its nose emergency hatch was only 22 in × 26.5 in (56 cm × 67 cm) in size; only 15 per cent of the crew of downed Lancasters were able to bail out successfully. In contrast, in a Halifax or Stirling (which both had an escape hatch 2 in (5.1 cm) wider), 25 per cent of downed aircrew bailed out successfully. In American bombers (albeit in daylight raids where the escaping crew could better see what to do) the success rate was as high as 50 per cent. British scientistFreeman Dyson, at that time a 19-year-old member of Bomber Command'sOperational Research Section who had yet to win a degree, wrote after the war of how the Operational Research Section gathered these statistics by studying lists of aviators who survived the loss of their bombers to reappear in POW camps. The Operational Research Section's attempts to have the Lancaster escape hatch improved were unsuccessful.[33][34]
On the roof of thebomb bay the pilot andflight engineer sat side by side under the expansive canopy, with the pilot sitting on the left on a raised portion of the floor (almost all British bombers, and most German bombers, had only a single pilot seat as opposed to the American practice of carrying two pilots, or at least having controls for two pilots installed). The flight engineer sat on a collapsible seat (known as a "seconddicky seat") to the pilot's right, with the fuel selectors and gauges on a panel behind him and to his right. The pilot and other crew members could use the panel above the cockpit as an auxiliary emergency exit while the mid-upper gunner was expected to use the rear entrance door to leave the aircraft. The tail gunner escaped by rotating his turret to the rear, opening the door in the back of the turret, passing into the fuselage, and clipping on a parachute that was hung on the side wall. He could then exit through the rear entrance door.[35]
Behind the pilot and flight engineer, and behind a curtain fitted to allow him to use light to work, sat thenavigator. His position faced to port with a chart table in front of him. An instrument panel showing the airspeed, altitude, and other information required for navigation was mounted on the side of the fuselage above the chart table. Thewireless operator's radios were mounted on the left-hand end of the chart table, facing the rear of the aircraft. Behind these and facing forwards the wireless operator sat on a seat at the front of the main spar. On his left was a window, and above him was theastrodome, used for visual signalling and by the navigator forcelestial navigation.[36][page needed]
Behind the wireless operator were the twospars of the wing, which created a major obstacle for crew members moving down the fuselage even on the ground. At the end of the bomb bay was the mid-upper gunner's turret, at which the floor dropped down to the fuselage's bottom. His position allowed a 360° view over the top of the aircraft, with twoBrowning .303 Mark IIs to protect the aircraft from above and to the side. The mid-upper gunner sat on a rectangle of canvas that was slung beneath the turret and would stay in position throughout the flight. The turret had 1,000 rounds of ammunition per gun.[citation needed]
To the rear of the turret was the side crew door, on the starboard side of the fuselage. This was the main entrance to the aircraft, and also could be used as an emergency exit. The Elsanchemical toilet, a type ofaircraft lavatory, was located near the spars for the tailplane. At the extreme tail-end of the fuselage, the rear gunner sat in his exposed position in the tail turret, which was entered through a small hatch in the rear of the fuselage. Depending on the size of the rear gunner, the area was so cramped that the gunner would often hang his parachute on a hook inside the fuselage, near the turret doors. Neither the mid-upper nor the rear gunner's position was heated, and the gunners had to wear electrically heated suits to preventhypothermia andfrostbite.[citation needed]
The Avro Lancaster was initially equipped with fourNash & ThompsonFrazer Nashhydraulically operated turrets mounted in the nose, tail, mid-upper and underside. The original tail turret was equipped with fourBrowning .303 Mark II machine guns and all other turrets with two such machine guns.[37][38][39]
Freeman Dyson wrote after the war that he and his Operational Research Section colleagues put forward a case for the removal of the Lancaster's gun turrets. They argued that this would reduce the loss rate by increasing the Lancaster's cruising speed by up to 50 mph (80 km/h), assuming the bomb load was not increased; this would make the bomber harder to intercept.[40] Dyson also privately believed that removing the turret gunners from the crew would at least reduce the lives lost with each aircraft. The proposal was not adopted.[34]
Only the FN-5A[37] nose turret which was similar to the FN-5 used on the precedingAvro Manchester, theVickers Wellington and theShort Stirling remained unchanged during the life of the design, except where it was removed.
The ventral (underside) FN-64 turret quickly proved to be dead weight, being both difficult to sight because it relied on a periscope which limited the gunner's view to a 20-degree arc,[37] and too slow to keep a target within its sights.[note 3] Aside from early B.Is and the prototype B.IIs, the FN-64 was almost never used. When theLuftwaffe began usingSchräge Musik to make attacks from below in the winter of 1943/1944, modifications were made, including downward observation blisters mounted behind the bomb aimer's blister[41] and official[42] and unofficial mounts for .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns or even 20 mm (0.79 in) cannon, firing through the ventral holes of the removed FN-64. The fitting of these guns was hampered as the same ventral position was used for mounting theH2S blister, which limited installations to those aircraft fitted with bulged bomb bays which interfered with the H2S.[37]
The mid-upper (dorsal or top) turret was an FN-50[37][38] on early examples and the very similar FN-150 with improved sights and controls[37] on later examples. On all but the earliest examples, this turret was surrounded by a coaming which provided a track for a cam-operated interrupter device which prevented the gunner from shooting the tail of his own aircraft.[37] The Mk.VII and late Mk.X Lancasters used the heavier, electrically controlled Martin 250 CE 23A turret equipped with two .50 in (13 mm) machine guns[37] which was mounted further forward to preserve the aircraft's longitudinal balance, and because it had an internal mechanism to prevent firing on the aircraft itself, it did not require a coaming.[note 4][37] Other experimental turrets were tried out, including the FN-79 and the Boulton-Paul Type H barbette system.[37]
The tail turret was the most important defensive position and carried the heaviest armament. Despite this, the turrets used, starting with the FN-20, were never entirely satisfactory and numerous designs were tried. The FN-20 was replaced by the very similar FN-120 which used an improvedgyroscopic gun sight (GGS).[37] Many rear gunners insisted on having the centre section ofperspex removed from the turret to improve visibility. The transparencies were difficult to see through at night, particularly when trying to keep watch for enemy night fighters that appeared without notice astern and below the aircraft when getting into position to open fire. This removal of perspex from the turret was called the "Gransden Lodge" modification. Ammunition for the tail turret was 2,500 rounds per gun. Due to the weight, the ammunition was stored in tanks situated near the mid-upper turret's position and fed rearward in runways down the back of the fuselage to the turret.[43]
Gunners using both the FN-20 and 120 removed perspex and armour from the turret to improve visibility, but trials by the RAF showed that ade Havilland Mosquito night fighter was still able to get within a very short distance of the tail gunner without being spotted, confirming what the Luftwaffe had already realised. TheRose turret attempted to improve on the FN turrets by being completely open to the rear (improving visibility and allowing easier emergency egress) and by being fitted with two .50 in (13 mm) machine guns. It was installed in a small number of Lancasters but never became common.[37]
Ultimately radar, rather than improved visibility, made the turret more effective. The FN-121 was the Automatic Gun Laying Turret (AGLT), an FN-120 fitted with'Village Inn' gun-layingradar.[37] Aircraft fitted with Village Inn were used as bait, flying behind the main formations to confront the night fighters that followed the formations and shot down stragglers. This significantly reduced operational losses; and gun-laying radar was added to the last versions of the turret. Before the end of the war, Lancasters built in the UK standardised on the FN-82 fitted with two .50 in (13 mm) machine guns and a gun-laying radar as production allowed, which was also used on early models of the Avro Lincoln. The disadvantage of all radar and radio transmitting systems is that attacking forces can locate aircraft by picking up transmissions.[citation needed]
An important feature of the Lancaster was its unobstructed 33 ft (10 m) long bomb bay. At first, the heaviest bomb carried was the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) high capacity HC "Cookie".[45] Bulged doors were added to 30 per cent of B.Is to allow the aircraft to carry 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) and later 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) "Cookies". The Lancaster also carried a variety of smaller weapons, including the Small Bomb Container (SBC) which held 236 4 lb (1.8 kg) or 24 30 lb (14 kg) incendiary and explosive incendiary bomblets; 500 lb (230 kg) and 1,000 lb (450 kg)General Purpose High Explosive (GP/HE) bombs (these came in a variety of designs); 1,850 lb (840 kg) parachute deployedmagnetic oracoustic mines, or 2,000 lb (910 kg) armour-piercing (AP) bombs; 250 lb (110 kg) Semi-Armour-Piercing (SAP) bombs, used up to 1942 against submarines; post-1942: 250 lb (110 kg) or 500 lb (230 kg) anti-submarinedepth charges.[citation needed]
In 1943,617 Squadron was created to carry outOperation Chastise, the raid against the Ruhr dams. This unit was equipped with B.III (Specials), officially designated the "Type 464 (Provisioning)", modified to carry the 9,250 lb (4,200 kg)"Upkeep" bouncing bomb.[46][note 5] The bomb bay doors were removed and the ends of the bomb bay were covered with fairings. "Upkeep" was suspended on laterally pivoted, vee-shaped struts which sprang apart beamwise when the bomb-release button was pressed. A drive belt and pulley to rotate the bomb at 500 rpm was mounted on the starboard strut and driven by a hydraulic motor housed in the forward fairing. The mid-upper turret was removed and a more bulbous bomb aimer's blister was fitted; this, as "Mod. 780", later became standard on all Lancasters, while the bombsight was replaced by a simple aiming device that consisted of a simple triangle of wood with a peephole at one corner and a nail in each of the other corners such that at the correct distance the nails coincided with the towers on the dams. Because each dam was a different width between the towers, each plane carried two or three different sights.[47][48] TwoAldis lights were fitted in the rear bomb bay fairing, aimed forward so the bomb aimer could see the converging lights below his blister in the nose; the optimum height for dropping "Upkeep" was 60 ft (18 m) and, when shone on the relatively smooth waters of the dam's reservoirs, the light beams converged into a figure 8 when the Lancaster was flying at the correct height.[47][49]The Type 464 Lancaster was also fitted withVHF radios (normally reserved for fighters) so thatGibson, the squadron leader, could control the operation while over the target,[50] an early example of what became themaster bomber role.
After the 'Dam Busters' raid 617 Squadron was converted to a high-altitude precision bombing squadron in preparation for the arrival of Barnes Wallis's forthcoming Earthquake bombs for attacking special and hardened targets, and while they were training for this the bouncing bomb variants of B.I Specials had the spars and equipment removed and were then modified to carry the 21 ft (6.4 m) long 12,000 lb (5,400 kg)"Tallboy" bomb, a scaled-down version of the upcoming 25.5 ft (7.8 m) long 22,000 lb (10,000 kg)"Grand Slam" "earthquake" bombs which were still being built. Aircraft intended to carry the "Grand Slam" required extensive modifications. These included the removal of the dorsal turret and of two guns from the rear turret, the removal of the cockpit armour plating (the pilot's seatback), and the installation of Rolls-Royce Merlin Mk 24 engines for better take-off performance. The bomb bay doors were removed and the rear end of the bomb bay cut away to clear the tail of the bomb. Later the nose turret was also removed to further improve performance. A strengthened undercarriage and stronger mainwheels, later used by theAvro Lincoln, were fitted.[5][note 6]
Specific bomb loads were standardised and given code names by Bomber Command:[51]
| Codename | Type of raid or target | Bomb load |
|---|---|---|
| "Arson" | incendiary area bombing | 14 SBC, each with 236 x 4 lb (1.8 kg) Incendiary and Explosive Incendiary bomblets, total 3,304. |
| "Abnormal" | factories, railway yards, dockyards | 14 x 1,000 lb (450 kg)GP/HE bombs using both impact and long delay (up to 144 hours) fuses. |
| "Cookie"—or—"Plumduff" | Blast, demolition and fire | 1 x4,000 lb (1,800 kg) impact-fused HC bomb. 3 x 1,000 lb (450 kg) GP/HE bombs, and up to 6 SBCs with 1,416 incendiary bomblets. |
| "Gardening" | Mining of ports, canals, rivers and seaways | 6 x 1,850 lb (840 kg) parachute mines. |
| "No-Ball" | V-1 flying bomb launch sites | 1 x 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) impact fused HC and up to 18 x 500 lb (230 kg) GP bombs, with both impact and delay fusing. |
| "Piece" | Docks, fortifications and ships | 6 x 2,000 lb (910 kg) short-delay fused AP bombs, plus other GP/HE bombs based on local needs or availability. |
| "Plumduff-Plus" | Heavy industry | 1 x 8,000 lb (3,600 kg) impact or barometric fused HC and up to 6 x 500 lb (230 kg) impact or delay fused GP/HE bombs. |
| "Usual" | Blast and incendiary area bombing | 1 x 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) impact-fused HC bomb, and 12 SBCs with a total of 2,832 incendiary bomblets. |
| no code name given | Medium-range low altitude tactical raids | 6 x 1,000 lb (450 kg) short and long delay fused GP/HE bombs, additional 250 lb (110 kg) GP/HE bombs sometimes added. |
| no code name given | Submarines | (up to 1942): 5 x 250 lb (110 kg) short-delay fuse SAP bombs for surfacedU-boats; (post-1942): 6 x 500 lb (230 kg) and 3 x 250 lb (110 kg) anti-submarine depth charge bombs. |
| Special-purpose weapons and codenames | Type of target | Weapon |
|---|---|---|
| "Upkeep" | Dams | 1 x 9,250 lb (4,200 kg), hydrostatic-fused "Upkeep" mine. |
| "Tallboy" | Very strong or durable structures (e.g.: submarine pens); battleshipTirpitz | 1 x 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) short-delay fused "Tallboy" bomb. |
| "Grand Slam" | As well as direct hits on very strong or durable targets (such as submarine pens) it could be used indirectly to create acamouflet (cavern) that undermined structures such as bridges, viaducts and bunkers causing them to collapse. | 1 x 22,000 lb (10,000 kg) short-delay fused "Grand Slam" bomb. |
Bombsights used on Lancasters included:[52]
The Lancaster had a very advanced communications system for its time. Most British-built Lancasters were fitted with theR1155 receiver and T1154 transmitter, whereas the Canadian-built aircraft and those built for service in the Far East had American radios. These provided radio direction-finding, as well as voice andMorse capabilities.
During early 1942,No. 44 Squadron, based atRAF Waddington,Lincolnshire, became the first RAF squadron to convert to the Lancaster; it was quickly followed byNo. 97 Squadron, which was also based at Waddington.[29][55] On 2 March 1942, the first operational mission of the Lancaster, deploying naval mines in the vicinity ofHeligoland Bight, was performed by aircraft of No. 44 Sqn; a planned mission against theGerman battleship Tirpitz had been rescheduled due to poor weather conditions.[56] On 10 March 1942, the type's first bombing mission was conducted over the German city ofEssen,North Rhine-Westphalia.[57]
All Lancasters were temporarily grounded after a crash on 20 March inBoston, Lincolnshire; this was lifted after each aircraft had been inspected for signs of buckling on the upper wing surface.[56] The first recorded casualties amongst Lancaster crews were recorded on 24 March 1942 with the loss ofR5493 to anti-aircraft fire overLorient.[58] Due to the high loss rates typically involved in such operations, daytime bombing missions were performed sparingly until the Allies had achieved a level ofaerial supremacy over theAxis powers.[59]
On 17 April 1942, 12 Lancasters of No. 44 and No. 99 Squadrons undertook a bombing raid on theMaschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg A.G., Augsburg engine manufacturing plant in Southern Germany; despite flying at low altitude, three bombers were shot down by Luftwaffe Bf 109s over France, and at least two more were lost to anti-aircraft fire at the factory itself. Nonetheless, the factory was successfully bombed, a feat that was personally hailed by Prime MinisterWinston Churchill in the aftermath.[60] The attack revealed the existence of the Lancaster to both Germany and the British public alike. On 27 April, an unsuccessful small-scale attack on theTirpitz was performed by Lancasters of both No. 44 and No. 99 Squadrons.[61]
On the night of 30/31 May 1942, the Lancaster participated inOperation Millenium, the first 1,000 bomber raid against the German city ofCologne.[62] By this point, the number of Lancasters in operational service had surpassed those of the preceding Manchester. On 12 June, the first use of the type byRAF Coastal Command, having loaned aircraft fromRAF Bomber Command, commenced; it was used to conduct long range anti-U-boat operations, reportedly attacking two on 15 June.[63]
Additional large-scale raids were performed againstEmden between 19 and 23 June, and againstBremen between 25 and 29 June, the latter reportedly dealing considerable damage to theFocke-Wulf aircraft works.[63] 40 Lancasters also flew an ineffective long-range raid uponDanzig, arriving after dusk and thus unable to effectively bomb its port to disrupt U-boat construction. On 31 July, 20% of Bomber Command's strength was directed againstDüsseldorf, focused onSchiess A.G.'s machine tool manufacturing plant.[64] The tempo of Lancaster operations rose to a new height in August 1942, major raids were flown against targets in theRuhr,Duisburg, and in theBaltic Sea. An emphasis was placed upon aiding theBattle of the Atlantic by hindering theGerman Navy. Often, when the weather was deemed to be unsuitable for bombing missions, night-time mine-laying operations were flown instead.[65]
A major improvement to night-time bombing came with the implementation of thePathfinder Force (PFF) in August 1942, multiple squadrons were transferred from Bomber Command groups to constitute the new unit.[66] These pathfinders were tasked with flying ahead of bomber formations to locate and mark targets usingTarget Indicator flares to improve the accuracy of strikes by the following aircraft. Early PFF operations produced mixed results, but did prove decisive on 27/28 August againstKassel and the three factories of theHenschel aircraft company in the city.[67][68] That same night, 12 Lancasters of No. 106 Squadron flew toGdynia, armed with newly developed anti-capital ship bombs, intending to hit the battleshipsScharnhorst andGneisenau, as well as theaircraft carrierGraf Zeppelin, but did not manage to hit any ships due to a persistent haze.[69]
While the Lancaster had been designed to conduct night-time operations, daylight raids were occasionally performed by the type as well.[59] Occasionally, lone Lancasters would be dispatched to perform decoy raids on key manufacturing sites, such as munitions factories, with the intention of being spotted to cause workers to go to air raid shelters, thus disrupting production.[64] On 17 October 1942, an audacious daytime raid was performed by 90 Lancasters ofNo. 5 Group, the bombing of theSchneider Works atLe Creusot, France; only a single aircraft,W4774, was lost during the course of the mission.[59] Losses were avoided by measures such as flying beneath German radar cover, aerial reconnaissance along the intended route, and the strict observation of secrecy.[70]
In late October 1942, the first Lancaster bombing missions over Italy were performed; on 22 and 23, the cities ofGenoa andTurin were struck at night-time.[71] On 24 October, the Italian city ofMilan was raided by roughly 60 Lancasters during the daytime; railway infrastructure was a priority target for these attacks. These bombers had been escorted across the Channel by Spitfires before breaking formation to individually fly at low altitude to reach and fly over theAlps; a total of three were reportedly shot down by enemy fighters.[72] During November, targets in Italy and Germany were alternatively attacked by Lancasters, striking the city ofOsnabrück multiple times, conducting a heavy raid against Turin, and destroying supplies for theAfrika Korps in Genoa. Only eight bombing missions were conducted during all of December, the most prominent of which being against Duisburg, due to poor prevailing weather conditions.[73]
Throughout 1942, the Lancaster remained in relatively short supply; consequently, both training and crew conversion courses typically had to be performed by the squadrons themselves; there were no aircraft furnished with dual controls at this time, and pilots would therefore have to perform their first flight without their instructors being capable of directly acting on the controls themselves.[59][62] Furthermore, each Lancaster had its own ground crew early on; centralised servicing was introduced later.[74] By the end of the year, a total of 16 operational squadrons had been stood up while around 200 Lancasters were under Bomber Command.[73]
On 16 January 1943, the German capital city ofBerlin was raided for the first time in over a year; conducted by an all-Lancaster force, the Berlin raid was fairly inconsequential beyond its psychological impact, not causing meaningful damage to either side.[75] The firstradial engined Lancasters were also introduced to service during January, alongside some new bombing aids. On 4 February, 198 Lancasters raided the city of Turin; days later, 466 Lancasters attacked Lorient, and an all-Lancaster force of 142 aircraft attacked Milan on 14 February.[76] On 28 February, 86 Lancasters attacked the occupied French city ofSaint-Nazaire; the next day, 79 Lancasters bombed Berlin. On 5 March, theBattle of the Ruhr strategic bombing campaign was launched by Bomber Command. The initial attack on Essen comprised 412 bombers, 140 of which were Lancasters. In order to cope with the higher attrition rate from these operations, a three-fold increase in production was enacted.[77]
On 15 April, Stuttgart was raided by a large force of Lancasters; on the following day,Plzeň was similarly struck, although much of the intended attack upon theŠkoda Works was unintentionally directed towards a large asylum instead; other targets that month included Stettin, Duisburg, and the Ruhr. The majority of strategic bombing missions flown during May were also directed towards the Ruhr region.[78]
Perhaps the most famous single mission performed by the Lancaster was flown on 16–17 May 1943, codenamedOperation Chastise, to destroy the dams of theRuhr Valley.[79] The operation was carried out byNo. 617 Squadron, which had been formed less than two months prior. They flew modified Lancaster Mk IIIs that were armed with special drum-shapedbouncing bombs; these had been specially designed by the British engineerBarnes Wallis; the Lancaster was the only bomber at the time capable of bearing the weapon.[80] A total of 19 aircraft were dispatched on the operation, setting off in the evening and flying at very low altitudes most of the way to avoid detection. Initial attacks targeted theMohne Dam until it was breached, then moved on to theEder Dam, and then theSorpe Dam andEnnepe Dam.[81] The story of the operation was later made intoa book, and subsequently a film,The Dam Busters.[80]
The Ruhr continued to be intensely raided by Bomber Command for months following Operation Chastise with the aim of suppressing the region's industrial output.[82] In June, Lancasters begun operating inNorth Africa using the tactic ofshuttle bombing from airfields inBlida andMaison Blanche. This was a key element ofOperation Bellicose, the bombing of a Germanradar factory in the formerZeppelin Works atFriedrichshafen and the Italian naval base atLa Spezia.[82] On 12 July, an all-Lancaster force performed the biggest-yet bombing raid on Turin in support of the recently launchedItalian Campaign. Further missions across the country were flown throughout this month, often focusing on electrical and railway infrastructure.[83]
During late July and early August 1943, large numbers of Lancasters participated in the devastating round-the-clock raids on the city ofHamburg during Air Chief Marshal Harris'sOperation Gomorrah.[84] On the night of 27 July, 787 RAF aircraft, comprising 74Vickers Wellingtons, 116Short Stirlings, 244Handley Page Halifaxes and 353 Avro Lancasters, bombed the city.[85][86] An estimated 18,474 people died on this night alone, despite many of victims being withinair raid shelters and cellars, as the widespread fires across the city led tocarbon monoxide poisoning.[87] Altogether, 8,621 tons of bombs were dropped on Hamburg by the end of the operation.[88]
On the night of 17/18 August,Operation Hydra was conducted against thePeenemünde Army Research Center, the site of theV-2 rocket and otherGerman guided missiles and munitions; 17 Lancasters were lost in the costly but successful attack, mainly to German night fighters.[89][90] Five days later, Lancasters struck numerouschemical works across Germany, including those in Leverkusen and Düsseldorf. On 23 August, a major raid on Berlin was conducted, dropping roughly 1,700 tons of bombs on the city; German night fighters responded, causing a 5.4% loss rate amongst Lancasters, while the Halifax and Stirling bombers suffered 8.8% and 12.9% loss rates respectively. Numerous strikes on the German capital occurred over the following weeks, sometimes by an all-Lancaster force.[89]
In September, Hanover was subjected to the most concentrated bombing raid of the war so far.[91] In October, the widespread bombing of numerous German cities took place, targeting Munich, Kassel, Frankfurt, Offenbach, Ludwigshafen, Stuttgart, Friedrichshafen, and Leipzig, along with other targets. By this point, theRoyal Canadian Air Force had stood up its own operational squadrons equipped with Lancasters, and proceeded with offensive action over Germany in this same month.[92]
In late 1943, Air Chief Marshal Harris advocated to Churchill for the persistent bombing of Berlin in preference to earlier targets such as the Ruhr.[93] Between 15 November 1943 and 24 November 1944, sixteen major bombing operations were conducted against the German capital in theBattle of Berlin; of the 9,111 sorties flown, 7,256 had been performed by Lancasters. These raids, while often incurring in costly losses, were typically deemed to have been 'most satisfactory' by senior officials.[94] In March 1944, the Berlin raids were somewhat lessened as a compromise, Bomber Command having been directed to destroy enemy communications and other targets around France and theLow Countries ahead of theNormandy landings onD-Day.[95]
During April 1944, key targets in France included railway hubs in Villeneuve,Rouen, andJuvisy-sur-Orge.[96] Special operations were flown against specific ammunition depots, munitions factories, and coastal batteries in advance of the Allied invasion. Around this time, Lancasters would also provide direct support to the local operations of field forces.[97] By May, Bomber Command had a daily average operating strength of roughly 1,100 aircraft, 616 of which were Lancasters, 354 were Halifaxes, 72 Mosquitos, and 58 Stirlings; between 300 and 400 bombers were being deployed every night, dependent on weather conditions.[98] In May and June, extensive operations were flown against the fortifications of theAtlantic Wall. The first combat use of Barnes Wallis' 12,000 lb (5,400 kg)'Tallboy' bombs occurred around this time.[99][100]
On 14 June, the first large-scale daylight bombing raid since 1942 was conducted using Lancasters against enemy shipping at the harbours ofLe Havre andBoulogne.[101] These daylight raids quickly became frequent as, due to a shortage ofoil, the Luftwaffe were increasingly incapable of mounting opposition; to further this difficulty for their opponent, Lancasters were directed against numerous oil installations. In conjunction, low-level nighttime bombing raids continued, but the emphasis shifted away from the strategic bombing of German industry in favour of directly attacking military concentrations, such as U-boat pens andV-1 flying bomb launch sites.[102]
During July, in the days following the Normandy landings, Lancasters heavily bombed the city ofCaen repeatedly.[103] On 24 August, eight Tallboys were dropped in a daylight attack on the U-boat pens atIJmuiden, two direct hits were recorded. Multiple raids on V-1 launch sites and enemy shipping were also performed during August; the partially constructed battleshipClemenceau was one of the targets that were struck around this time.[104] September saw a heavy focus on airfields inHolland, as well as repeated raids on German-heldLe Havre and oil targets in the Ruhr. On 17 September, precision strikes were performed onBoulogne only 200 yards from the Allied lines.[103]
In October, Lancasters repeatedly struck the sea wall atWestkapelle, seeing to prevent the Germans from intentionally flooding neighbouring lands to delay Allied ground forces.[105] Extensive daylight raids were performed during the month; cities such as Cologne, Walcheren, and Bergen were targeted by hundreds of Lancasters. Bomber operations proceeded in both day and nighttime against industrial towns, airfields, communications, and troop concentrations into December; one such operation was flown against theE-boat pens atRotterdam on 29 December.[106]
Throughout the latter half of 1944, a series of high-profile bombing missions were performed by the Lancaster against theGerman battleship Tirpitz.[107][108] Executed by Nos. 617 and 9 Sqns, a combination of Lancaster B.I and B.III bombers were armed with Tallboy bombs and were adapted with enlarged bomb bay doors in order to accommodate their special payloads and additional fuel tanks to provide the necessary endurance. A total of three attacks, individually codenamedOperation Paravane,Operation Obviate andOperation Catechism, were conducted againstTirpitz, which was anchored in afjord inOccupied Norway.[107] The first of these attacks disabled the vessel while the third mission was responsible for sinking the ship. Due to actions such as Operation Chastise and the sinking ofTirpitz,No. 617 Sqn was perhaps the most famous of all Lancaster squadrons.[59][109]
On 1 January 1945, theDortmund–Ems Canal was attacked by Lancasters, hitting it at a vulnerable section near Ladbergen.[110] An attack onPforzheim on 23 February was described by aviation author Bruce Robertson as amongst the most concentrated and successful flown in the conflict. In the final months of the war, Lancasters were encountering the newly developedMesserschmitt Me 262, the first Germanjet-powered fighter aircraft, sometimes flying in formations of up to 40 aircraft.[111] On 4 November 1944, a Lancaster of 428 squadron was attacked by a Me 262, which was shot down by the rear gunner Ben Rakus. The pilot F.W. Walker noted that this was the first instance of a heavy bomber shooting down a jet.[112]
During early 1945, a total of 33 Lancaster B.Is were modified so that they could deploy the 22,000 lb (10,000 kg)Grand Slam bomb, the heaviest conventional bomb to be used during the conflict.[113][114] On 13 March 1945, the first operational use of the Grand Slam was performed by a Lancaster of No. 617 Sqn against theBielefeld viaduct inNorth Rhine-Westphalia; this target had not yet been rendered inoperable despite being damaged by prior conventional bombing. The Tallboy strike successfully destroyed roughly 100 yards of the viaduct's length; additional viaducts, such as at Arnsberg, were promptly targeted by the squadron thereafter.[115]
By April 1945, there were in excess of 1,000 Lancasters in frontline service, dwarfing the numbers of Halifaxes andMosquitos (alight bomber) operated by Bomber Command at that time.[116] Key industrial sites, such as theAuguste Viktoriabenzol factory, were struck, while oil installations continued to be a prominent target of bombing raids in the hope of exacerbating the German fuel shortage. Amongst the final wartime operations performed by the Lancaster was theBombing of Obersalzberg, aimed at the destruction ofEagle's Nest, the extensive holiday home complex used by German leaderAdolf Hitler.[113][117] Unusually, theBBC were permitted to announce the raid before it was completed.[118]
RAF Lancasters dropped food into the Holland region of the occupied Netherlands, with the acquiescence of the occupyingGerman forces, to feed people who were in danger of starvation.[113][119] The mission was named 'Operation Manna' after the foodmanna which is said to have miraculously appeared for theIsraelites in theBook of Exodus. The aircraft involved were from 1, 3, and 8 Groups, and consisted of 145Mosquitos and 3,156 Lancasters, flying between them a total of 3,298sorties. The first of the two RAF Lancasters chosen for the test flight was nicknamed "Bad Penny" from the old expression: "a bad penny always turns up." This bomber, with a crew of seven men (five Canadians including pilot Robert Upcott ofWindsor, Ontario), took off in bad weather on the morning of 29 April 1945 without a ceasefire agreement from the German forces, and successfully dropped its cargo.[citation needed]
The Lancaster conducted a total of 156,000 sorties and dropped 608,612 long tons (618,378,000 kg) ofbombs between 1942 and 1945. Only 35 Lancasters completed more than 100 successful operations each, and 3,249 were lost in action. The most successful survivor completed 139 operations and was ultimately retired from service and scrapped in 1947. From 1942 onwards, the Lancaster became the mainstay of the British heavy bomber fleet; by the end of the war in Europe, there were roughly 50 squadrons equipped with the Lancaster, the majority of these being the Lancaster B.I model.[59] From its entry into service, the original model of the Lancaster was operated in almost every major bombing raid of the European conflict.[120]
Adolf Galland (commander of the Luftwaffe fighters) considered the Lancaster to be "the best night bomber of the war",[121] as did his adversary,Arthur "Bomber" Harris, who referred to it as Bomber Command's "shining sword".[122] Goulding and Garbett wrote that: "The achievements of the Lancaster and the men who flew it have been widely acclaimed, and the aircraft has been described as the greatest single factor in winning WWII, an exaggeration but a pardonable one".[29]
Lancasters from Bomber Command were to have formed the main strength ofTiger Force, the Commonwealth bomber contingent scheduled to take part inOperation Downfall, the codename for the planned invasion of Japan in late 1945.[120] Aircraft allocated to the Tiger Force were painted in white with black undersides and outfitted with additional radio units and navigational aids to facilitate their use in thePacific theatre. The addition of large saddle-type external fuel tanks was considered and trialled in Australia and India, but this was discontinued due to their perceived vulnerability to attack.[123] Together with the newAvro Lincoln and Liberators, the bombers would have operated from bases onOkinawa; the envisioned invasion did not happen when such action was made unnecessary by thesurrender of Japan.[120]
While the Lancaster was briefly considered for carrying the atomic bomb as being one of the two Allied bombers capable of carrying the atomic bomb internally, after theBoeing B-29 Superfortress began to be modified in November 1943 for carrying the new bombs, the suggestion for using the Lancaster never came up again.[124] Using the Lancaster would have required less modification to the aircraft itself, but would have necessitated additional crew training for the USAAF crews. In addition, the Lancaster had a lower ceiling and flew slower so was at risk of the bomb blast. It also had a shorter range. "The B-29 was, therefore, deemed the better bet if it could be modified in time.".[125]Major GeneralLeslie Groves, the director of theManhattan Project, andGeneralHenry H. Arnold, the Chief ofUnited States Army Air Forces (USAAF), wished to use an American plane if this was at all possible. "Because the use of a British plane would have caused us many difficulties and delays"[126]
As a byproduct of its sound design and operational success, various developments and derivatives of the Lancaster were produced for both military and civilian purposes. One of these was theAvro Lincoln bomber, initially designated Lancaster IV and Lancaster V which became the Lincoln B.1 and B.2 respectively. A civilian airliner was converted from the Lancaster with the addition of nose and tail fairings and seats, as theLancastrian and a similar aircraft was derived from the Lincoln as theLincolnian. Other developments included theYork, a transport with a much larger square section fuselage, and via the Lincoln, theShackleton maritime patrol aircraft which continued in RAF service in that role until replaced by theHawker Siddeley Nimrod in the early 1970s, but saw further service as anairborne early warning (AEW) system until finally retired in 1991. TheTudor airliner also used the Lincoln wings, but with a new tubular fuselage.
The Lancaster remained in use for several years after the end of the war, during which a number of high-profile operations were conducted.[127]
During the summer of 1946,No. 35 Squadron Lancasters toured the United States and wereautographed by various American movie stars, and retained these until their retirements.[127] A pair of Lancasters,PD328 andPB873, performed several long-distance flights, including round-the-world and trans-polar trips.[127]
The Lancaster remained at the forefront of RAF Bomber Command while the Lancaster B.I was gradually replaced by the improved Lancaster B.I (F/E) and B.VII (F/E) models.[120] During 1947–1948,No. 82 Squadron received new PR.1 dedicated photo-reconnaissance model derived from the Lancaster B.1 which was painted silver and lacked defensive turrets. These carried out aerial surveys of Central andEast Africa and at least one was operated by theMinistry of Aviation.[127]RAF Coastal Command received a small number of grey-painted Lancaster MR.1s, which were normally based atRAF Kinloss,Moray Firth.[127]
The Lancaster continued to be operated in significant numbers until the introduction of theAvro Lincoln, a development of the Lancaster. The Lincoln was not available in quantity for several years following the end of the conflict,[128] and it took until December 1953 for the final Bomber Command Lancaster to be retired.[120] The last Lancaster in active service with the RAF, a reconnaissance aircraft, is believed to have been retired in late 1954.[129]
Avro overhauled 59 Lancaster B.Is and B.VIIs at Woodford and Langar which were delivered to the FrenchAéronavale during 1952/53,[130] which were flown until the mid-1960s by four squadrons stationed in France andNew Caledonia in the maritime reconnaissance and search-and-rescue roles.[131]
Between 1948 and 1949, 15 former RAF Lancasters were overhauled at Langar for use by theArgentine Air Force.[130] During its Argentine service, Lancasters were used offensively in suppressing and supporting militarycoups.[132]
Beginning in 1946, Lancaster Mk Xs were modified for service with theRoyal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). Fourteen were modified to perform aerial and photo-reconnaissance missions; these would go on to perform much of the mapping of northern Canada until as late as 1962. Throughout the 1950s, the RCAF operated seventy modified Lancasters, designatedLancaster 10MR/MPs, as Maritime Reconnaissance and Patrol aircraft in an anti-submarine role. Modifications involved the installation of radar and sonobuoy operators' positions, removal of the rear and mid-upper gun turrets, installation of a 400-gallon fuel tank in the bomb bay to increase the patrol range, upgraded electronics, radar, and instrumentation, and a cooking stove in the centre section.[133] They served throughout the 1950s, when they were supplemented by theLockheed Neptune and finally replaced by theCanadair Argus.[134]
Immediately following the end of hostilities, the Lancaster was used without any major modifications as a transport aircraft, being used to ferry thousands ofprisoners of war (POWs) back to the British Isles from across the continent.[135] Repatriation flights returning POWs and ordinary troops continued until November 1945.[120]
Civil conversions of the type continued during the initial postwar years. In 1946, four Lancasters were converted by Avro atBracebridge Heath,Lincolnshire as freighters for use byBritish South American Airways, but proved to be uneconomical, and were withdrawn after a year in service. In addition, four Lancaster IIIs were converted byFlight Refuelling Limited as two pairs of tanker and receiver aircraft for the development ofin-flight refuelling. In 1947, one aircraft was flown non-stop 3,459 mi (5,567 km) from London to Bermuda. Later on, these two tanker aircraft were joined by another converted Lancaster; these saw use during theBerlin Airlift, achieving 757 tanker sorties.[citation needed]
From 1943 to 1947, the Canadian Government Trans-Atlantic Air Service (CGTAS) provided a trans-Atlantic military passenger and postal delivery service using a modified long-distance transport version of the Lancaster Mark X. Nine of these aircraft were produced, referred to as Lancaster XPPs (for Lancaster Mk.X Passenger Planes), and each was equipped with rudimentary passenger facilities. The inaugural flight from Dorval (Montreal) to Prestwick, Scotland on 22 July 1943, was completed non-stop in a record 12:26 hours; the average crossing time was about 13:25 hours. By the end of the war, these aircraft had completed hundreds of trips across the Atlantic. CGTAS ushered in the era of commercial air travel across the North Atlantic, and in 1947 the service became part ofTrans-Canada Air Lines, which carried paying civilian passengers in the Lancaster XPPs until they were replaced byDouglas DC-4s in 1947.[134][136][137]
_of_No._617_Squadron%2c_loaded_with_a_%2527Grand_Slam%2527_22%2c000-lb_deep-penetration_bomb%2c_running_up_its_engines_at_Woodhall_Spa%2c_Lincolnshire%2c_1944._MH4263.jpg)
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Of the 17 surviving and largely intact Lancasters known to exist, two are airworthy:PA474 is a Lancaster B.I operated by theBattle of Britain Memorial Flight, based atRAF Coningsby inLincolnshire, UK;FM213, named the "Mynarski Memorial Lancaster" and painted with VR-A (nicknamed VeRA) to honourAndrew Mynarski, is a Lancaster B.X operated by theCanadian Warplane Heritage Museum inHamilton, Ontario, Canada.
Two other Lancasters exist with working engines, though not airworthy; like the airworthy pair, these are also found one each in Britain and Canada. The B MkVIIJust Jane, NX611, is based in theEast KirkbyLincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre, just 9 miles (14 km) east-northeast of PA474 at RAF Coningsby; it is able to taxi but is not airworthy, though there are plans to eventually return it to flight. TheBomber Command Museum of Canada, inNanton, Alberta, is home to FM159, nicknamed Bazalgette, which has been restored from a vandalised state and is able to taxi under its own power.
In 2014, the two airworthy Lancasters (Canadian FM213 and British PA474) toured the UK in a series of joint aerial and ground displays.[157]
In 2017, after more than 50 years on display inEdmundston, New Brunswick, Lancaster KB 882 moved to theNational Air Force Museum of Canada inTrenton, Ontario, where it is to be restored and placed alongside the museum's restoredRAFHandley Page Halifaxheavy bomber, NA 337.[158]
For the 2018 flying season, to commemorate the 75th anniversary of Operation Chastise, the Canadian FM213 Lancaster was painted in the markings used by Guy Gibson's 617 Squadron aircraft (Code AJ-G, ED932) when he commanded the "Dambusters" raids.[159]
Data fromAvro Aircraft since 1908,[160]The Secret Years: Flight Testing at Boscombe Down 1939–1945,[144]The Avro Lancaster I: Aircraft in Profile Number 65[39]
General characteristics
Performance
Armament
Avionics
Many Lancaster crew members were highly decorated for their actions while flying the aircraft. Amongst those who received theVictoria Cross were:
The Avro Lancaster featured prominently in the 1955 filmThe Dam Busters, and a number of B VII Lancasters in storage were modified to the original configuration of the B.III (Special) for use on screen. Lancasters play a prominent part inAppointment in London with Dirk Bogarde.[citation needed]
Related development
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Related lists
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