| Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739 Austro-Turkish War of 1737–1739 | |||||||||
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| Part of theRusso-Ottoman andAustro-Ottoman war series | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
 Burkhard MünnichPeter Lacy Ernst Gideon von Laudon |  Mehmed PashaAli PashaYahya PashaClaude Alexandre de Bonneval Grigore II Ghica Constantin Mavrocordat | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
20,000 killed and wounded[6] |
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TheRusso-Turkish War of 1735–1739 betweenRussia and theOttoman Empire was caused by the Ottoman Empire'swar withPersia and the continuing raids by theCrimean Tatars.[8] The war also represented Russia's ongoing struggle for access to theBlack Sea. In 1737, theHabsburg monarchy joined the war on Russia's side, known in historiography as theAustro-Turkish War of 1737–1739.
By the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War, Russia had successfully secured a favorable international situation. This was achieved through the signing of treaties withIran from 1732 to 1735 (which wasengaged in a conflict with the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1735) and by supporting theaccession ofAugustus III to the Polishthrone in 1735, instead ofStanislaw Leszczynski, who had been nominated by pro-OttomanFrance. Austria had been Russia's ally since 1726.
Thecasus belli was the raids of theCrimean Tatars on theCossack Hetmanate at the end of 1735 and the Crimean Khan's military campaign in the Caucasus. In 1736, the Russian commanders envisioned the seizure ofAzov and theCrimean Peninsula.
In 1735, on the eve of the war, Russia made peace with Persia, returning all the remaining territory conquered during theRusso-Persian War (Treaty of Ganja).[9]
On 20 May 1736, the RussianDnieper Army (62,000 men), under the command ofField MarshalBurkhard Christoph von Münnich,stormed theCrimeanfortifications atPerekop and occupiedBakhchysarai on June 17.[10] The Crimean khans failed to defend their territory and repel the invasion. In 1736, 1737, and 1738, Russian expeditionary armies broke through their defensive positions, pushing deep into the Crimean Peninsula, driving the Tatar noblemen into the hills and forcing KhanFetih II Giray to take refuge at sea. They burnedGozlev,Karasubazar, and the khan'spalace in the Crimean capital, Bakhchysarai. Additionally, they captured the Ottomanfortress atAzov.[11]
KhansQaplan I Giray and Fetih II Giray were deposed by the Ottoman sultanMahmud I for their incompetence. However, the years 1737 to 1739 were notable plague years, and all sides of the conflict were crippled by disease andunsanitary conditions.[12] Despite his success and a string of battlefield victories, the outbreak of anepidemic coupled with shortages[13] forced Münnich to retreat to Ukraine.[14]
On 19 June 1736, the RussianDon Army of 28,000 men, under the command ofGeneralPeter Lacy, with support from theDon Flotilla under the command ofVice AdmiralPeter Bredahl, seized thefortress of Azov.[10] The Crimean campaign of 1736 ended with Russian withdrawal into Ukraine, resulting in an estimated 30,000 lives lost. Only 2,000 of these losses were related to war, while the rest were due to disease, hunger, and famine. In July 1737, Münnich's armystormed the Turkish fortress ofOchakov. Lacy's army, already 40,000 men strong, marched into Crimea the same month and capturedKarasubazar (seeLacy's campaign to Crimea). However, Lacy and his troops had to leave Crimea due to a lack of supplies.[15]
In July 1737, the Habsburg monarchy entered the war against the Ottoman Empire. Initial incursion of Habsburg armies intoOttoman Serbia resulted in the capture ofNiš, that was followed by the pro-HabsburgSerbian uprising against the Ottoman rule.[16] On the western section of the front, Habsburg armies were defeated at theBattle of Banja Luka on 4 August 1737.[17][18] There were no significant military operations in 1738. The Russian Army had to leave Ochakov andKinburn due to aplague outbreak. In August, Russia, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire begannegotiations inNemirov, which would turn out to be fruitless.
According to an Ottoman Muslim account of the war translated into English by C. Fraser, Bosnian Muslim women fought in battles, having "acquired the courage of heroes" against the Austrian Germans at the siege ofOsterwitch-atyk (Östroviç-i âtık) fortress.[19][20] Women also fought in the defense of the fortresses ofBūzin (Büzin) andChetin (Çetin).[21] Their bravery was also described in a French account.[22]Yeni Pazar,Izvornik,Gradişka, andBanaluka were also struck by the Austrians.[23]
In the summer of 1739, the Russian army, commanded by Field Marshal Münnich, crossed theDniester river by the late July, defeated the Turks at theBattle of Stavuchany on August 28 [O.S. August 17], and occupied the fortresses ofKhotyn on August 30 [O.S. August 19]. Proceeding further, Münnich crossed thePrut river by September 10 [O.S. August 30], while his advance units, headed by young Constantine Cantemir, son of lateAntioch Cantemir, former Prince of Moldavia (d. 1726), reachedIași, the capital city of thePrincipality of Moldavia on September 12 [O.S. September 1]. Münnich entered Iași on September 14 [O.S. September 3] and pressed Moldavian boyars to accept the annexation of Moldavia on September 16 [O.S. September 5].[24]
However, main Habsburg army suffered a strategic defeat at theBattle of Grocka near Belgrade, on 21–22 July.[25] Field marshalWallis retreated intoBelgrade Fortress, while Turks laid thesiege of the city. Already on 31 July, the imperial government in Vienna decided to relieve Wallis of his previously granted powers to negotiate with the Ottomans, and those powers were consequently transferred to countNeipperg, who arrived at Belgrade on 16 August, and then proceeded to the camp of theGrand Vizier on 18 August, thus initiating peace negotiations. There he found himself isolated, and dependent on the French mediator, marquisLouis Sauveur de Villeneuve. On 1 September, Neipperg agreed to sign a preliminary peace agreement with the Ottomans that included the loss of Belgrade, not knowing that his original instructions were no longer valid, since the imperial government in Vienna in the meantime decided not to surrender the city, and wait for the outcome of the Russian campaign in Moldavia. News on the conclusion of the preliminary peace treaty reached Vienna on 7 September, but it was too late for reversal. On 18 September, the final peaceTreaty of Belgrade was signed, thus confirming Habsburg loss ofWallachia Minor (Oltenia), centralSerbia with Belgrade, and the Bosnian section ofPosavina.[26][27]
Using mediating powers granted to him by the Russian court, Villeneuve also negotiated a separate Russo-Turkish preliminary peace treaty, that was signed on the same day (18 September) in Belgrade. Faced with the threat of a possible Swedishinvasion,[28] and consequent Ottoman alliances with Sweden,Poland, andPrussia,[29] the Russian government decided to accept terms that were reached through the French mediation. On 3 October, the final Russo-TurkishTreaty of Niš was signed, thus ending the Russo-Ottoman war.[30] The Azak Fortress was demolished and its lands were turned into neutral territory as it became a centre of attack in line with the demands for access to the Black Sea. And consolidated Russia's control over theZaporizhia[31] in exchange for Russia abandoning its claims to Crimea and Moldova.[32] For Austria, the war proved a stunning defeat. The Russian forces were much more successful on the field, but they lost tens of thousands to disease.[33] The Russians had access to the Black Sea[34] but were not allowed to maintain any fleet in the Azov and Black Sea.[35][36]
are Turkish fortsThe Ottoman Empire held forts along the north shore of the Black Sea and on the eastern side of the Balkans. Azov kept the Don Cossacks out of the Sea of Azov. Kaffa dominated the Crimean Khanate. Or Kapi, behind the Perekop trenches, guarded the entrance to Crimea. Ochakov, at the mouth of the Dnieper, kept the Dnieper Cossacks out of the Black Sea. Khotyn, on the upper Dniester, watched the Polish Commonwealth. The Turkish border was close to the current Ukrainian border along the Dniester. Polish claims extended to the Dnieper, except for Kiev. Russia had a very vague border about 100 or more miles south of the current border. The semi-independentZaporozhian Cossacks were along the Dnieper bend. The Crimean Khanate and itsNogai steppe allies raided Poland and Russia and sold the captives to the Turks atKaffa.
In 1722, Russia and Turkey took advantage of Persian weakness to capture the northwest part of the Persian Empire. Russia tookthe west side of the Caspian and the Ottomans got as far asTabriz.Nader Shah slowly restored Persian power. By 1734, Persia was reconquering its land south of the Caucasus, and it was clear that Russia could not hold its gains. In 1733 or 1734, the Turks ordered Crimea to send a force across the north Caucasus to attack the Persians. Eropkin on theTerek river tried to stop them and lost 55 men. The army went down the west shore of the Caspian as far as theSamur River, where it was recalled by Turkey for unexplained reasons.
In 1735, theCrimean khan led 80,000 men across the North Caucasus and south toDerbent. By the end of 1735, he received news of Leontiev's raid on Crimea and decided to turn back. During his return journey, he spent time foraging inKabardia and eventually reached Crimea in the spring of 1736.[37] Crimean interference in the Caucasus served as one pretext for the war.
= Turkish fortIn March 1735, through theTreaty of Ganja, Russia returned its territorial gains to Persia and forged an alliance with Persia against Turkey. With Crimean troops absent from the peninsula and the Turks engaged with Persia, Russia seized the opportunity for a surprise attack.General Münnich moved south and discovered that his army would not be ready until the following year. In order not to waste that year's campaigning season, he dispatched Leontiev on a raid.
1735: Leontiev's raid:Leontiev set off on 1 October 1735, far too late in the season. He started near theSamara River and marched south, east of the Dnieper bend. AtKonska Voda, he killed about 1,000 Nogais and stole their livestock. He turned west with the river, and on 16 October, reached the Russian fort ofKamenny Zaton, about 10 days' march fromPerekop. Here, he turned back because of the cold and the loss of 3,000 horses. The next day, a snowstorm killed another 1,000 horses. By late November, he was back where he started, having lost 9,000 of his 40,000 men and about 9,000 horses.
1736: Azov captured: Around 30 March 1736, Münnich and 5,000 men besieged Azov. Additional soldiers arrived, and on 7 April, Münnich left to join the main force on the Dnieper. In MayPeter Lacy took over and on 26 June the Turks surrendered on condition of safe passage. Lacy set off for Crimea, but turned back when he heard of Münnich's withdrawal.
1736: First Russian invasion of Crimea: In mid-April, Münnich set off south with 54,000 men and 8,000 or 9,000 carts, following Leontiev's route east of the Dnieper bend. On 4 May, the Tatars were defeated at theBela Zirka river near Kamenny Zaton and withdrew to Perekop. By 19 May, Russia had 30,000 troops facing Perekop. On 20 May,the wall was breached, and on 22 May, the 2,254 Turks in theOr Qapi fort surrendered on parole.
Russia now entered Crimea for the first time. On 5 June, they raidedGozleve for supplies. On 17 June,[38] they captured Bakhchisarai. The khan's palace was burned, either accidentally or deliberately. On 23 June, they burned the kalga's seat atAk Mechet. Most of the Crimean army had scattered to the hills, while the Turks withdrew to Kaffa. Münnich hoped to capture Kaffa before the Turks could send reinforcements, but on 25 June, he decided to withdraw. Dysentery had first been noted on 7 June. Soon, a third of the army was sick, and many of the rest weakened. There was not enough food, fresh water, or fodder to support his army. By 18 July, they were back on theSamara river. Half of the army had been lost, 2,000 in fighting, and the rest from disease. Because of the invasion, Crimean khanQaplan I Giray was replaced byFetih II Giray.
1736: Kinburn captured: After Perekop was captured, Leontev and 13,000 men were sent west to capture the fort on theKinburn Peninsula, south ofOchakov. The garrison was allowed to abandon the fort and cross to Ochakov on the opposite bank.[39] 250 Russian prisoners were freed there.
On 9 January 1737, Austria joined the war drawing Turkish troops away from the Black Sea. The Turko-Persian conflict had ended inSeptember 1736, but it took time to move Turkish troops west. The plan for 1737 involved one army capturing the Turkish fort of Ochakov at the mouth of the Dnieper-Bug estuary, while a second army invaded Crimea.
1737: Capture of Ochakov: In early April, Münnich left the Kiev area with about 70,000 men. On 30 June, they reached Ochakov, which now had 20,000 defenders. Fighting began the next day, and on 3 July, heated shot set the town on fire. The fire spread to the powder magazine, which blew up, killing thousands of Turks. This caused the Turks to surrender the same day.
Münnich left 8,000 men to hold the fort and returned with the rest of the army toPoltava. In October, the Ottomans tried to retake the fort under the direct orders of SultanMahmut I. All of their attempts failed, and on 30 October, they withdrew. (Next spring, the plague appeared in the fort and was reported inMoldavia,Wallachia, Poland, and Zaporozhia. It increased, and in September 1738, Ochakov and Kinburn were evacuated to escape the plague because the weakened troops would not be able to resist if the Turks came back.)
1737: Second invasion of Crimea: The goal was to prevent the Crimeans from supporting Ochakov, damage Crimea as much as possible, and capture the Turkish fort ofKaffa if possible. On 3 May 1737,Peter Lacy set out from theMius River near Taganrog, about 50 km west of Azov. Around 320 small boats with supplies and Don Cossacks followed along the coast. On 23 May, the two forces joined at what is nowMariupol, about 100 km further west. On 28 June, aTurkish fleet caught the Azov flotilla near Henichesk. After two gun duels, they were driven off (1 July). Soon after, a storm destroyed most of the flotilla along with its food and ammunition.
Instead of attacking the 60,000 Tatars waiting atPerekop, Lacy built a pontoon bridge out of water casks and crossed theHenichesk Strait onto theArabat Spit, starting on 2 July. Khan Fetih headed south toward the far end of the spit, but Lacy again outflanked him by crossing to the mainland near theSalhyr River, causing the Crimeans to disperse. Lacy went southwest, and on 14 July, he burnedKarasubazar. Three days later, he chose to withdraw.[40] He had lost most of his supplies with the flotilla; the Tatars were regrouping, there was not enough fresh water and fodder, and sickness was starting to appear. On 23 July, he crossed the Henichesk Strait, and a month later reached "Molochnye Vody".[41] Because of the invasion, the Turks replaced Khan Fetih II withMeñli II Giray.
Planning started in November 1737. The goal for 1738 was to tie down the Crimeans while Münnich attacked along the Dniester in support of the Austrians.
1738: Third invasion of Crimea: Peter Lacy started from Vol'chye Vody (location?) with an army about the same size as the previous year. On 19 May, he met the supply fleet at what is nowBerdiansk on the Azov coast (see Azov fleet below). Lacy learned that Mengli and 30,000 men were waiting behind Perekop, and that Turkish troops had garrisoned Or Kapi. They rested at Molochnye Vody. Instead of attacking Perekop, Lacy chose to cross theSyvash by wading at low tide, possibly near theChongar Strait. They turned west and got between Perekop and the khan's army. They blasted Or Kapi with mortars,[42] which surrendered around the beginning of July. They turned south, but on 6 July, they decided to go home. There was little food or fodder because the Crimean interior had been trashed the previous year, supplies with the Azov fleet had been lost (see Azov fleet below), and disease was beginning to appear. They stopped a Tatar attack on 9 July, rested at Perekop for a month, ruined Perekop as much as they could, and returned to Molochnye Vody.
Azov fleet:Peter Bredal with a rebuilt Azov fleet, supplies, and 4,000 Don Cossacks, met Lacy's army on 19 May. On 23 May, more Don Cossacks arrived with their own boats. On 25 May, Bredal was caught by a much larger Turkish fleet and blockaded at ‘Cape Vissarion’ (location?). The blockade was broken when the Turks unwisely pursued three escaping sloops. On 6 June, they were again caught at ‘Cape Fedotov’, probably on the long sand spit just east ofHenichesk Strait. They hauled their boats across the sand spit and reassembled nearHenichesk, where they were again caught on 16 June. They landed their guns, built a shore battery, and burned their boats. There was a two-day artillery duel, but the Turks chose not to land, perhaps because they lacked marines. The loss of the supply fleet forced Lacy to withdraw from Crimea.
1738: Western campaign: The goal was for Münnich to lead the main army to the Dniester and attack the border forts at either Khotin or Bender. On 17 April, he crossed the Dnieper south of Poltava, and in late June, he crossed theBug. He reached the Dniester, but on 6 August, he abandoned the campaign because of Turkish resistance and reports of plague west of the river.
1739: Failed invasion of Crimea: Levashev was supposed to march from Azov, but an epidemic forced him to halt at the Miuss River. He later returned to Azov because a fire had destroyed the Azov arsenal and granary. Bredal could not sail from Azov due to disease and a shortage of ships. Lacy leftIzium on 10 May. His force was weakened because much had been transferred to the western campaign. In July, he learned that the Turks had sent troops and a fleet, and that Levashev had turned back. He marched toward Perekop, saw that there was no hope, and returned to the Ukrainian line, which he reached on 24 August.
1739: Western campaign: Münnich planned to capture Khotin to take pressure off the Austrians, who were doing poorly. He left Kiev in late April, crossing Polish territory because the land was better and the Poles were too weak to interfere. He won theBattle of Stavuchany on 28 August, took Khotin on 30 August, and enteredJassy on 14 September. There he learned that Austria had signed a preliminary peace treaty on 1 September, and the final peace treaty on 18 September, which made his position untenable. In October, he was ordered to return to Russian territory.
1739: Treaties: The war was ended by theTreaty of Belgrade with Austria on 18 September and theTreaty of Niš with Russia on 3 October. All three parties wanted out because the war as it was costing more than anything they might gain. Russia was also worried about the loomingRusso-Swedish War (1741–1743). Russia kept nothing more than a demilitarized Azov and Zaporozhye, but it had demonstrated that it could reach Moldavia and was now a serious threat to Crimea. After the formal ratification of peace treaties, diplomatic instruments were exchanged and the final convention was signed in Constantinople on 28 December 1739, also through the French mediation, thus concluding the war.
Austria hoped to gain land in the Balkans while the Turks were tied down with Russia. The border was then about 100 km south of Belgrade inland gained in 1717. In 1737, Austria went south, capturedNiš but soon gave it up. In 1738, the Turks advanced and took places in centralSerbia and on the Danube. In 1739, Austria crossed the Danube, fought abattle at Grocka, and fell back to the Danube.Belgrade was under siege by the Turks when talks began. Austria gave upBelgrade with central Serbia, south of the Danube, and also western Wallachia, which was perhaps more than the military situation required. The war was poorly managed. The next year, theWar of the Austrian Succession began.[43][44]
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