The nameAustralia (pronounced/əˈstreɪliə/ inAustralian English)[28] is derived from the LatinTerra Australis Incognita ('unknown southern land'), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times.[29] Several 16th-century cartographers used the wordAustralia on maps, but not to identify modern Australia.[30]
When the Dutch began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, they called the continentNew Holland. The nameAustralia was popularised by the explorerMatthew Flinders, who circumnavigated the continent in 1803. However, when his account of his voyage was published in 1814, the nameTerra Australis was used.[29]
Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago,[18][19][20] with the migration of people byland bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia.[18] It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians.[33][34] TheMadjedbebe rock shelter inArnhem Land is possibly the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia.[19][20][35] The oldest human remains found are theLake Mungo remains, which have been dated to around 42,000 years ago.[36]
Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands at least 2,500 years ago.[53][54] Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture also developed on some islands and villages appeared by the 1300s.[53] By the mid-18th century in northern Australia,contact, trade and cross-cultural engagement had been established between local Aboriginal groups andMakassantrepangers, visiting from present-day Indonesia.[55][56][57]
TheDutch East India Company ship,Duyfken, captained byWillem Janszoon, made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606.[58] Later that year,Luís Vaz de Torres sailed to the north of Australia throughTorres Strait, along New Guinea's southern coast.[59]Abel Tasman's voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reachVan Diemen's Land. On his second voyage of 1644, he mapped the north coast of Australia south of New Guinea. Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts. They named the continentNew Holland.[60]
Most early settlers wereconvicts,transported for petty crimes andassigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (willing immigrants). Onceemancipated, convicts tended to integrate into colonial society. Aboriginal resistance, convict rebellions andbushranging were sometimes suppressed under martial law.[64][65] The 1808Rum Rebellion, carried out by officers of theNew South Wales Corp, led to a temporarymilitary junta.[66] During the next two decades, social and economic reforms, together with the establishment of aLegislative Council andSupreme Court, saw the penal colony transition to a civil society.[67]
The indigenous population declined for 150 years following European settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.[68] British colonial authorities did not sign any treaties withAboriginal groups.[69][70] As settlement expanded, tens of thousands of Indigenous people and thousands of settlers were killed infrontier conflicts, which many historians argue included acts of genocide by settlers. Settlers dispossessed surviving Indigenous peoples of most of their land.[71]
The six colonies individually gainedresponsible government between 1855 and 1890, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of theBritish Empire.[79] The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs.[80] The colonial parliaments progressively extended voting rights to adult men from 1856, withwomen's suffrage on equal terms following between the 1890s and 1900s. Some colonies introduced racial restrictions on voting from 1885.[81]
From 1901, Australia was a self-governingdominion within the British Empire.[93] It was one of the founding members of theLeague of Nations in 1920,[94] and theUnited Nations in 1945.[95] TheStatute of Westminster 1931 ended the ability of the UK to legislate for Australia at the federal level without Australia's consent. Australiaadopted it in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed during World War II.[96]
In the three decades following World War II, Australia experienced significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development.[108] Governments encouraged alarge wave of immigration from across Europe and called these migrants "New Australians". High immigration was justified to Australians using the slogan "populate or perish,"[109] and from the 1960s thewhite Australia policy was gradually relaxed.[110]
Following the abolition of the last vestiges of theWhite Australia policy in 1973,[118] Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia.[119] The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with otherAsia–Pacific nations.[120] TheAustralia Acts of 1986 severed the remaining constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom while maintaining the monarch in her independent capacity asQueen of Australia.[121][122] In a1999 constitutional referendum, 55% of voters rejectedabolishing the monarchy and becoming a republic.[123]
Following theSeptember 11 attacks on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting theAfghanistan War from 2001 to 2021 and theIraq War from 2003 to 2009.[124] The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation'slargest trading partner by a large margin.[125]
In response to theCOVID-19 pandemic, from March 2020lockdowns and other restrictions on public gatherings and movement across the national and state borders were implemented by the Federal, state and territory governments. Following the rollout of vaccines in 2021, these restrictions were gradually eased. In October 2023, Australia declared that COVID-19 was no longer a communicable disease incident of national significance.[126]
Mainland Australia lies between latitudes9° and44° south, and longitudes112° and154° east.[8] Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by theArafura andTimor seas, with theCoral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and theTasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. TheGreat Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for more than 2,300 km (1,400 mi).[128]
Most of Australia is arid or semi-arid.[133] In 2021 Australia had 10% of the global permanent meadows and pastureland.[134]Forest cover is around 17% of Australia's land area.[135][136] The Australian mainland is relatively flat, with an average height of 325 metres (1,066 ft) compared with 870 metres (2,850 ft) for all continents.[137] TheGreat Dividing Range runs along most of eastern Australia, dividing the central lowlands from the eastern highlands.[138] At 2,228 m (7,310 ft),Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the mainland. Taller areMawson Peak, at 2,745 m (9,006 ft), on Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory,Mount McClintock andMount Menzies, at 3,492 m (11,457 ft) and 3,355 m (11,007 ft) respectively.[138]
Uluru in the semi-arid region of Central Australia
TheMurray-Darling is the major river system, draining most of inland New South Wales and Southern Queensland towardsLake Alexandrina and the sea in South Australia. There are also smaller coastal river systems, inland drainage systems such as theLake Eyre system, and salt lake systems in central and western Australia.[139] Australia's rivers have the lowest discharge into the sea of any continent. The mainland's flat, arid profile also makes its rivers slow-moving, resulting in a build up of salt on the land.[140] Salinisation adversely affects Australia's soil which is, on average, poor in nutrients compared with world standards.[141]
Australia's population is concentrated on the coastal fringes. About 95% of the population lives within 100 km of the coast; the world average is 39%.[142] Australia'spopulation density is 3.5 inhabitants per square kilometre,[143] which is one of the lowest in the world.[142] However, there is a large concentration of the population in cities along the temperate south-eastern coastline, and population density exceeds 38 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne.[143]
Formerly part of theRodinia andGondwanasupercontinents,[144] Australia completely separated from Antarctica about 35 million years ago and continued drifting northwards.[145] When thelast glacial period ended, rising sea levels separated the Australian mainland from New Guinea about 8,000 years ago and fromTasmania about 6,000 years ago.[145]
Australia lies well within theAustralian tectonic plate. The mainland is relatively stable geologically, with no major mountain building, active volcanoes or tectonic faults.[146] However, the Australian plate is moving north-northeast at a rate of about 6 to 7 cm a year and is currently in collision with theEurasian plate andPacific plate.[147] The resulting intratectonic stresses lead to relatively high seismic activity for a geologically stable landmass. There were 18 earthquakes with amoment magnitude of greater than 6 between 1901 and 2017.[147] TheNewcastle earthquake of 1989 was Australia's deadliest, killing 13 people.[148] There were active volcanoes on the eastern mainland as recently as 4,600 years ago,[149] and this is reflected in Aboriginal place names and creation stories.[150] Currentlyvolcanism occurs in the remoteHeard Island and McDonald Islands.[151]
The Australian continental crust was created in three cycles from the oldestArchaeancratons in the west to the youngerorogenic formations in the east (built about 541 million to 252 million years ago).[149][152] The oldest Australian surface rocks date to the Archaean period. Some in Western Australia are older than 3.7 billion years and others in South Australia are over 3.1 billion years old. The oldest zircon crystals on Earth, dating back 4.4 billion years, have been found in Western Australia. However, about 80 per cent of Australia is covered by sedimentary rocks andregolith that are less than 250 million years old.[149]
The Australian climate ranges from wet tropical in the northeast and northwest to arid in the centre. The coastal south is temperate and humid with winter freezing and snow in the southeastern highlands and Tasmania. The climate is influenced by Australia's position in the "horse latitudes" which tends to bring arid conditions.[154] Overall, the Australian mainland is the driest inhabited continent, with an average annual rainfall of 470 millimetres (19 in).[133] About 70% of the country is arid or semi-arid,[133] and about 18% is desert.[155]
The climate is also influenced by various systems such as theEl Niño–Southern Oscillation, theIndian Ocean Dipole and theSouthern Annular Mode.[156] Australia has unusual variability in rainfall within years and between years, leading to frequent droughts and flooding. Cyclones and rain depressions are common in tropical Australia. The summer monsoon brings significant rainfall to northern Australia and low pressure cells bring winter rainfall in the south. The hottest regions are in the northwest of the country and the coolest in the southeast. Bushfire conditions are common in southern Australia.[154]
Climate change from increasedgreenhouse gas emissions has led to a 1.5 °C rise in Australian temperatures since 1910 and an increase in extreme heat and heavy rainfall events. There has been a reduction in rainfall from April to October in southern Australia since 1970 and a longer bushfire season since the 1950s. Rainfall has increased in northern Australia since the 1970s. The number of tropical cyclones have fallen since 1982 and alpine snow has decreased since the late 1950s. Sea levels are rising around Australia and the surrounding oceans are becoming more acidic.[156]
In January 2025 there were 168,386 named species on the Australian National Species List.[162] However, it is estimated that 70% of Australian species have not been discovered and classified and that there may be 600,000 Australian native species. In general, knowledge ofvertebrates and flowering plants is better than forinvertebrates andfungi. It is estimated that less that 10% ofAustralia’s fungi and insects have been named.[163]
About 10% of the world’s known plant species are found in Australia.[164] Many of these have adapted to the arid climate, variable rainfall and nutrient-poor soil.Deserts and xeric shrubland cover about 70% of the mainland.Acacia,banksia andeucalypts have spread over much of Australia. Many plants have hard and long-living leaves, and are rich in carbon, poor in nutrients, and well adapted to bushfires.[165]
About two-thirds of the world's 330 species ofmarsupials are native to Australia.[166] Australianplacental mammals (overwhelmingly bats, rats and mice) also make up almost 47% of the world’s land mammal species.[167] Australia has about 10% of the world’s known reptile species.[168] There are also about 320,500 invertebrate species, of which insects are the largest class, accounting for more than 75% of all animal species.[169] Australia has over 15,000 known species of fungi although it is possible that tens of thousands more exist.[170]
Australia's wildlife show many adaptations to their environments. As the leaves of most plants are poor in nutrients, Australia has a high proportion of birds, insects and marsupials, such as thehoney possum, that feed on nectar and pollen. Thekoala is an exception, specialising in feeding on eucalyptus leaves.[171][172] Nutritionally poor flora and variable rainfall also favour animals with lower energy requirements, including snakes, lizards, and hopping marsupials such as thekangaroo andwallaby. There is, however, evidence ofconvergent evolution of Australia's marsupials and the placental mammals of other continents living in similar environments. For example, the extinctthylacine (Tasmanian tiger) had similarities with the placental wolf,marsupial moles with thegolden moles of Africa, andhopping mice with the hopping rodents of other arid regions.[172]
There were major extinctions of Australia's vertebrates, including itsmegafauna, around 46 thousand years ago, and there is an ongoing scientific debate over the role of human activity and climate change in these extinctions. The contraction of the range of the Tasmanian tiger andTasmanian devil to that island around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is also consistent with changes on the mainland including an increasing human population, the introduction of thedingo, and the greater use of fire and new stone tool technologies.[173][174]
Over the past two centuries, Australia has lost more mammal species than any other continent. Overall, 100 Australian species are listed as extinct or extinct in the wild. In June 2021, over 1,000 animal and plant species were listed by Australian governments as endangered or critically endangered.[175] The major threats to endangered species are landscape change, ecosystem disruption, introduced species such as theferal cat andred fox, and climate change.[176]
Executive: theAustralian Government, led by the prime minister (the leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the House of Representatives), their chosenCabinet and other ministers; formally appointed by the governor-general[185]
Charles III reigns asKing of Australia and is represented in Australia by thegovernor-general at the federal level and by thegovernors at the state level, who bysection 63 of the Constitution and convention act on the advice of their ministers.[186][187] Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of theprime minister and the Cabinet. The governor-general may in some situations exercisereserve powers: powers exercisable in the absence or contrary to ministerial advice. When these powers may be exercised is governed by convention and their precise scope is unclear. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of theWhitlam government in theconstitutional crisis of 1975.[188]
In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).[189] The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 151 members elected from single-memberelectoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each of the current states guaranteed a minimum of five seats.[190] The lower house has a maximum term of three years, but this is not fixed and governments usually dissolve the house early for an election at some point in the 6 months before the maximum.[191] Elections for both chambers are generally held simultaneously with senators having overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house. Thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by adouble dissolution.[189]
Australia'selectoral system usespreferential voting for the House of Representatives and all state and territory lower house elections (with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which use theHare-Clark system). The Senate and most state upper houses use theproportional system which combines preferential voting withproportional representation for each state.Voting and enrolment is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and older in every jurisdiction.[192][193][194] The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where no party has majority support, the governor-general has the constitutional power to appoint the prime minister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament.[195] Due to the relatively unique position of Australia operating as aWestminster parliamentary democracy with a powerful and elected upper house, the system has sometimes been referred to as having a "Washminster mutation",[182] or as a semi-parliamentary system.[196]
There are two major political groups that usually form government federally: theAustralian Labor Party and theCoalition, which is a formal grouping of theLiberal Party and its minor partner, theNational Party.[197][198] At the state level of government, the relationship between the Nationals and the Liberal Party differs, with the partiesmerged in Queensland and theNorthern Territory (federal parliamentarians sit in either the Liberal or National partyroom however); in coalition in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia; and in competition with the Liberals in South Australia and Tasmania.[199] Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is consideredcentre-right and the Labor Party is consideredcentre-left.[200] Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. TheAustralian Greens are the third largest party by both vote and membership and the fourth largest by parliamentary representation.[201][202] Themost recent federal election was held on 21 May 2022 and resulted in the Australian Labor Party, led byAnthony Albanese, being elected togovernment.[203]
The states have the general power to make laws except in the few areas where the constitution grants the Commonwealth (the federal level of government) exclusive powers.[205][206] The Commonwealth can only make laws on topics listed in the constitution but its laws prevail over those of the states to the extent of any inconsistency.[207][208] Since Federation, the Commonwealth's power relative to the stateshas significantly increased due to the increasingly wide interpretation given to listed Commonwealth powers – and because of the states'heavy financial reliance on Commonwealth grants.[209][210]
Each state and major mainland territory has its ownparliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The lower houses are known as theLegislative Assembly (theHouse of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as theLegislative Council. Thehead of the government in each state is thepremier and in each territory thechief minister. The King is represented in each state by agovernor. At the Commonwealth level, the King's representative is the governor-general.[187]
Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including theFive Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; theAUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; theQuadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; theFive Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and theReciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan.[226][227][228]
The power over foreign policy is highly concentrated in the prime minister and thenational security committee, with major decision such as joining the2003 invasion of Iraq made with without prior Cabinet approval.[239][240] Similarly, the Parliament does not play a formal role in foreign policy and the power to declare war lies solely with the executive government.[241] TheDepartment of Foreign Affairs and Trade supports the executive in its policy decisions.[242]
In 2021–22, Australia's generation of electricity was sourced fromblack coal (37.2%),brown coal (12%),natural gas (18.8%),hydro (6.5%),wind (11.1%),solar (13.3%),bio-energy (1.2%) and others (1.7%).[277][278] Total consumption of energy in this period was sourced from coal (28.4%), oil (37.3%), gas (27.4%) and renewables (7%).[279] From 2012 to 2022, the energy sourced from renewables has increased 5.7%, while energy sourced from coal has decreased 2.6%. The use of gas also increased by 1.5% and the use of oil stayed relatively stable with a reduction of only 0.2%.[280]
In 2020, Australia produced 27.7% of its electricity from renewable sources, exceeding thetarget set by the Commonwealth government in 2009 of 20% renewable energy by 2020.[281][282] A new target of 82% per cent renewable energy by 2030 was set in 2022[283] and a target fornet zero emissions by 2050 was set in 2021.[284]
Science and technology
In 2019, Australia spent $35.6 billion onresearch and development, allocating about 1.79% of GDP.[285] A 2022 study byAccenture for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people.[286] In addition, recentstartup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne are valued at $34 billion combined.[287] Australia ranked 23rd in theGlobal Innovation Index 2024.[288]
With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed 4.1% of the world's published research in 2020, making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world.[289][290]CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities.[290] Its most notable contributions include the invention ofatomic absorption spectroscopy,[291] the essential components ofWi-Fi technology,[292] and the development of the first commercially successfulpolymer banknote.[293] As of 2024[update], 13 Australian scientists have been awarded theNobel Prize in physics, chemistry or medicine,[294] and two have been awarded theFields Medal.[295]
Australia is also highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018.[297] Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants areSydney,Melbourne,Brisbane,Perth andAdelaide.[23]
In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, theaverage age of the population was 39 years.[298]
Australia has five cities (including their suburbs) that have populations larger than one million people. The majority of Australia's population lives near coastlines.[299]
Australian residents by country of birth (2021 census)
Between 1788 and theSecond World War, the vast majority ofsettlers andimmigrants came from theBritish Isles (principallyEngland,Ireland andScotland), although there was significant immigration fromChina andGermany during the 19th century. Following Federation in 1901, thewhite Australia policy was strengthened, restricting further migration from these areas. However, this policy was relaxed following WW2, and in the decades following, Australia receiveda large wave of immigration from acrossEurope, with many more immigrants arriving fromSouthern andEastern Europe than in previous decades. All overt racial discrimination ended in 1973, withmulticulturalism becoming official policy.[301] Subsequently, there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, withAsia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.[302]
Today, Australia has the world'seighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, thehighest proportion among majorWestern nations.[303][304] In 2022–23, 212,789 permanent migrants were admitted to Australia, with a net migration population gain of 518,000 people inclusive of non-permanent residents.[305][306] Most entered on skilled visas,[302] however the immigration program also offers visas for family members andrefugees.[307]
Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is thede facto official and national language.[313][314]Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,[315] and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling.[316]General Australian serves as the standard dialect.[317] The Australiansign language known asAuslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.[318]
At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home wereMandarin (2.7%),Arabic (1.4%),Vietnamese (1.3%),Cantonese (1.2%) andPunjabi (0.9%).[319]
More than 250Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact.[320] The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered.[321] The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians — Yumplatok (Torres Strait Creole),Djambarrpuyngu (aYolŋu language) andPitjantjatjara (aWestern Desert language) were among the most widely spoken.[322] NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.[323]
Australia has nostate religion; section 116 of theAustralian Constitution prohibits federal legislationthat would establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion.[324] However, the states still retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.[325]
In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions.[4] InAustralian Aboriginal mythology and theanimist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, theDreaming is asacred era in which ancestraltotemic spirit beings formedThe Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.[328]
Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females)[329] is thefifth-highest in the world. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world,[330] whilecigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes ishypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.[331][332] Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women[333] and near the top ofdeveloped nations for its proportion ofobese adults;[334] 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.[335]
Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021.[336] It introduced anational insurance scheme in 1975.[337] Following a period in which access to the scheme was restricted, the scheme becameuniversal once more in 1981 under the name ofMedicare.[338] The program is nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as theMedicare levy, currently at 2%.[339] The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds thePharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) andgeneral practice.[337]
Australia has the highest ratio of international students per capita in the world, with Melbourne ranking fifth among the 2023QS Best Student Cities (University of Melbourne pictured).
School attendance, or registration forhome schooling,[340] is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories; however, the Commonwealth has significant influence through funding agreements.[341] Since 2014,a national curriculum developed by the Commonwealth has been implemented by the states and territories.[342] Attendance rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16.[343][344] In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as anapprenticeship.[345][346][347][348] According to the 2022PISA evaluations, Australian 15-year-olds ranked ninth in the OECD for reading and science and tenth for maths. However, less than 60% of Australian students achieved the National Proficiency Standard – 51% in maths, 58% in science and 57% in reading.[349][350]
Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003.[351] However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that 44% of the population does not have high literary and numeracy competence levels, interpreted by others as suggesting that they do not have the "skills needed for everyday life".[352][353][354]
Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.[355] The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.[356] There is a state-based system of vocational training, known asTAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.[357] About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications[358] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 30.9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.[359][360][361]
Australia has the highest ratio ofinternational students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019.[362][363] Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas.[364] Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed more than $28 billion to the economy in the 2016–17 financial year.[N 12][290]
Many Australians identifyegalitarianism,mateship, irreverence and a lack of formality as part of theirnational identity.[372][373][374] These find expression inAustralian slang, as well asAustralian humour, which is often characterised as dry, irreverent and ironic.[375][376] New citizens and visa holders are required to commit to "Australian values", which are identified by theDepartment of Home Affairs as including: a respect for the freedom of the individual; recognition of the rule of law; opposition to racial, gender and religious discrimination; and an understanding of the "fair go", which is said to encompass the equality of opportunity for all and compassion for those in need.[377] What these values mean, and whether or not Australians uphold them, has been debated since before Federation.[378][379][380][381]
In the performing arts, Aboriginal peoples have traditions of religious and secular song, dance and rhythmic music often performed incorroborees.[52] At the beginning of the 20th century,Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers,[396] and later popular music acts such as theBee Gees,AC/DC,INXS andKylie Minogue achieved international recognition.[397] Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the Australian government'sAustralia Council.[398] There is a symphony orchestra in each state,[399] and a national opera company,Opera Australia,[400] well known for its famoussopranoJoan Sutherland.[401] Ballet and dance are represented byThe Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.[402]
Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise calledbush tucker.[414] It has increased in popularity among non-Indigenous Australians since the 1970s, with examples such aslemon myrtle, themacadamia nut andkangaroo meat now widely available.[415][416]
Post-war migrants transformed Australian cuisine, bringing with them their culinary traditions and contributing to newfusion dishes.[420] Italians introduced espresso coffee and, along with Greeks, helped develop Australia's café culture, of which theflat white andavocado toast are now considered Australian staples.[421][422]Pavlovas,lamingtons,Vegemite andAnzac biscuits are also often called iconic Australian foods.[423]
Australia is a leading exporter and consumer ofwine.[424]Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.[425] The nation also ranks highly inbeer consumption,[426] with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries.
The most popular sports in Australia by adult participation are: swimming, athletics, cycling, soccer, golf, tennis, basketball, surfing, netball and cricket.[428]
Australia has professional leagues forfour football codes, whose relative popularity isdivided geographically.[436] Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s,Australian rules football attracts the most television viewers in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, whererugby league holds sway, followed byrugby union.[437]Soccer, while ranked fourth in television viewers and resources, has the highest overall participation rates.[438]
Thesurf lifesaving movement originated in Australia in the early 20th century, following the relaxation of laws prohibiting daylight bathing on Australian beaches. The volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons.[439][440]
^Australia also has aroyal anthem, "God Save the King", which may be played in place of or alongside the national anthem when members of theroyal family are present. If not played alongside the royal anthem, the national anthem is instead played at the end of an official event.[1]
^Sydney is the largest city based on Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (GCCSAs). These represent labour markets and the functional area of Australian capital cities.[2] Melbourne is larger based on ABS Significant Urban Areas (SUAs). These represent Urban Centres, or groups of contiguous Urban Centres, that contain a population of 10,000 people or more.[3]
^The religion question is optional in the Australian census.
^Includes those who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry.[4] The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partialAnglo-CelticEuropean ancestry.[311]
^Each person may nominate more than one ancestry, so the total may exceed 100%.[312]
^The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partialAnglo-CelticEuropean ancestry.[311]
^Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not includeTorres Strait Islanders. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) which is a separate question.
^Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.
^"Australian National Anthem".Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet. 19 January 2022.Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved9 January 2024.
^"Population clock and pyramid".Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Commonwealth of Australia. 5 March 2024.Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved5 March 2024. The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.
^Clarke, Jacqueline; Clarke, Philip (10 August 2014)."Putting 'Australia' on the map".The Conversation.Archived from the original on 2 March 2022. Retrieved15 January 2022.
^Williams, Elizabeth (2015). "Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia".Antiquity.61 (232). Cambridge University Press:310–321.doi:10.1017/S0003598X00052182.S2CID162146349.
^"Torres Strait Islands".Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023 [1998]. Archived fromthe original on 15 June 2024. Retrieved17 November 2024.Torres Strait Islands, island group in the Torres Strait, north of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia, and south of the island of New Guinea. [...] They have been inhabited for at least 2,500 years. The present-day inhabitants are primarily of Melanesian origin, with some mixture of Polynesians and Southeast Asians.
^"Torres, Luis Vaez de (?–?)".Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 1967. Retrieved16 February 2025.
^Conway, Jill."Blaxland, Gregory (1778–1853)".Biography – Gregory Blaxland – Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University.Archived from the original on 8 April 2011. Retrieved14 July 2011.
^"Lockyer, Edmund (1784–1860)".Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. 1967. Retrieved16 February 2025.
^"Australia Act 1986 (Cth)".Documenting a Democracy. Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House.Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved25 July 2020.
^"National Reserve System".Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Archived fromthe original on 3 March 2025. Retrieved3 March 2025.
^Evans, Tim (2006)."Compulsory Voting in Australia"(PDF). Australian Electoral Commission. p. 4.Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 June 2009. Retrieved21 June 2009.
^Pyke, John (2020).Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 405–6.ISBN978-0-455-24415-0.
^Pyke, John (2020).Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 528–30,577–80.ISBN978-0-455-24415-0.
^Australian Constitution (Cth)s 109. "When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid."
^Pyke, John (2020).Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia (2nd ed.). Pyrmont, NSW: Lawbook Co. pp. 607–9.ISBN978-0-455-24415-0.
^Beck, Luke (2020).Australian constitutional law: concepts and cases. Port Melbourne, VIC: Cambridge university press. pp. 521–8.ISBN978-1-108-70103-7.
^Norfolk Island previously was self-governed, however this was revoked in 2015.[211][212]
^ThisAntarctic claim is recognised by only by New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, and Norway.
^"Australian Territories".Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts.Archived from the original on 8 March 2024. Retrieved16 February 2024.
^ab2017 Foreign Policy White Paper(PDF) (Report). Australian Government. 2017. pp. 1–8.Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 January 2024. Retrieved17 February 2024.
^Firth, Stewart (2011).Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy (3rd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. pp. 332–8.ISBN978-1-74237-263-1.
^Capling, Ann (2013).Australia and the Global Trade System: From Havana to Seattle. Cambridge University Press. p. 116.ISBN978-0-5217-8525-9.
^Gallagher, P. W. (1988). "Setting the agenda for trade negotiations: Australia and the Cairns group".Australian Journal of International Affairs.42 (1 April 1988):3–8.doi:10.1080/10357718808444955.
^Firth, Stewart (2011).Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy (3rd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. pp. 78–84.ISBN978-1-74237-263-1.
^"The Beach".Australian Government: Culture Portal. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 17 March 2008. Archived fromthe original on 26 February 2010.
^Ward, Rowena (2019)."'National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific".Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies.16 (1/2):83–4.doi:10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510.The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.
^abBiggs, Amanda (29 October 2004)."Medicare – Background Brief".Parliament of Australia: Parliamentary Library. Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia. Archived fromthe original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved16 April 2010.
^"Education". Department of Immigration and Citizenship. Archived fromthe original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved14 January 2012.
^"Our system of education". Australian Government: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Archived fromthe original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved13 January 2012.
^Fund, Leith van OnselenLeith van Onselen is Chief Economist at the MB; Treasury, MB Super Leith has previously worked at the Australian; Treasury, Victorian; Sachs, Goldman (31 October 2019)."Australian universities double down on international students".MacroBusiness.
^White, Richard (1 January 1983). "A Backwater Awash: The Australian Experience of Americanisation".Theory, Culture and Society.1 (3):108–122.doi:10.1177/026327648300100309.S2CID144339300.
^"Sidney Nolan's Rainbow Serpent is larger than life" (16 June 2012),The Australasian.
^Tacon, Paul S. C.; Ouzman, Sven (2004). "Worlds within stone: the inner and outer rock-art landscapes of northern Australia and southern Africa". In Nash, George; Chippindale, Christopher (ed.).The Figured Landscapes of Rock-Art: Looking at Pictures in Place. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–68. 9780521524247.
^Smith, Terry (1996). "Kngwarreye Woman, Abstract Painter", p. 24 inEmily Kngwarreye – Paintings, North Ryde NSW: Craftsman House / G + B Arts International.ISBN978-90-5703-681-1.
^Sarwal, Amit; Sarwal, Reema (2009).Reading Down Under: Australian Literary Studies Reader. SSS Publications. p. xii.ISBN978-8-1902-2821-3.
^Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001).Ecological Pioneers: A Social History of Australian Ecological Thought and Action. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-5210-0956-0, p. 72.
^O'Keeffe, Dennis (2012).Waltzing Matilda: The Secret History of Australia's Favourite Song.Allen & Unwin. p. back cover.ISBN978-1-7423-7706-3.
^"Culture.gov.au – "Film in Australia"".Australian Government: Culture Portal. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 22 November 2007. Archived fromthe original on 27 March 2011.
^Jonsen, Helen (1999).Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book. Hippocrene Books. p. 23.ISBN978-0-7818-0737-1.
^Newton, John (2018).The Getting of Garlic: Australian Food from Bland to Brilliant, with Recipes Old and New. NewSouth Publishing. ISBN 9781742244365, pp. 32, 230–231.
^Harte, Chris; Whimpress, Bernard (2008).The Penguin History of Australian Cricket (3rd ed.). Camberwell, Vic: Viking. pp. 92–94, 528, 722.ISBN9780670072880.
^Skinner, James; Zakus H., Dwight; Edwards, Allan (2013). "Coming in from the Margins: Ethnicity, Community Support and the Rebranding of Australian Soccer". In Adam, Brown (ed.).Football and Community in the Global Context: Studies in Theory and Practice. Routledge. pp. 92–93.ISBN978-1-317-96905-1.
Akami, Tomoko; Milner, Anthony (2013). "Australia in the Asia-Pacific Region". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781107011540.
Banivanua Mar, Tracey; Edmonds, Penelope (2013). "Indigenous and settler relations". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-1070-1153-3.
Bernard, J. L. R. (1989).The Pocket Macquarie Dictionary (1st ed.). Jacaranda Press.ISBN978-0701633578.
Blewett, Richard, ed. (2012).Shaping a Nation: a Geology of Australia. Canberra: Australian National University.ISBN978-1-921862-82-3.
Broome, Richard (2019).Aboriginal Australians (5th ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen and Unwin.ISBN9781760528218.
Christopher, Emma; Maxwell-Stewart, Hamish (2013). "Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-1070-1153-3.
Coman, Brian J. (2007).A Loose Canon: Essays on History, Modernity and Tradition. Connor Court Publishing Pty Ltd.ISBN978-0-9802-9362-3.
COVID 19 Response Inquiry Panel (2024).Commonwealth Government COVID‑19 Response Inquiry Report. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.ISBN978-1-925365-58-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Curthoys, Ann; Mitchell, Jessie (2013). "The advent of self-government". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-1070-1153-3.
Dean, Peter; Moss, Tristan, eds. (2021)."Introduction"(PDF).Fighting Australia's Cold War. Canberra: ANU Press.ISBN978-1-76046-482-0.Archived(PDF) from the original on 12 January 2024. Retrieved9 February 2024.
Dennis, Peter;Grey, Jeffrey; Morris, Ewan; Prior, Robin; Bou, Jean (2008).The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-1955-1784-2.
Finnane, Mark (2013). "Law and regulation". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia. Vol. 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-1070-1153-3.
Garton, Stephen; Stanley, David (2013). "The Great War and its aftermath, 1914-22". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781107011540.
Henderson, Robert; Johnson, David (2016).Geology of Australia (3rd ed.). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781107432413.
Jupp, James (2001).The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-5218-0789-0.
Karskens, Grace (2013). "The early colonial presence, 1788–1822". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-1070-1153-3.
Kennett, Brian; Chopping, Richard; Blewett, Richard (2018).The Australian Continent: A Geophysical Synthesis. Canberra: Australian National University Press.ISBN9781760462468.
Kercher, Bruce (2020).An Unruly Child: A History of Law in Australia. London and New York: Taylor & Francis.ISBN9781000248470.
Konishi, Shino; Nugent, Maria (2013). "Newcomers, c. 1600-1800". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-1070-1153-3.
Macintyre, Stuart (2020).A Concise History of Australia (5th ed.). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781108728485.
Nipperess, David A. (2015). "A separate creation: diversity, distinctiveness and conservation of Australian wildlife". In Stow, Adam; Maclean, Norman; Holwell, Gregory I. (eds.).Austral Ark: The State of Wildlife in Australia and New Zealand. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1107033542.
Reynolds, Henry (2022).Forgotten War (2nd ed.). Sydney: NewSouth Publishing.ISBN9781742237596.
Souter, Gavin (2000).Lion and Kangaroo: the Initiation of Australia (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Text Publishing.ISBN1876485434.
Teo, Hsu-Ming; White, Richard (2003).Cultural history in Australia. University of New South Wales Press.ISBN978-0-8684-0589-6.
Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). "The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.).The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-1070-1153-3.
Blainey, Geoffrey (2015). The Story of Australia's People, Volume 1: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Australia, Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Vic.ISBN978-0-6700-7871-4
Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000).A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. Oxford: Blackwell.ISBN978-0-631-17962-7.
Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds.) (2011).The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-5218-8857-8.
Hughes, Robert (1986).The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding. Knopf.ISBN978-0-394-50668-5.
Johnson, Louise C.; Luckins, Tanja; Walker, David (2022).The Story of Australia: A New History of People and Place. London and New York: Routledge.ISBN9781760297084.
Powell, J.M. (1988).An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-25619-3
Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J., and Tranter, P.J. (2000).Australia and New Zealand: Economy, Society and Environment. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-340-72033-2 paperback,ISBN978-0-340-72032-5 hardback.
.svg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
%2c_Parliament_House_--_2019_--_1746.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
