 | |
 Australia |  Japan |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic mission | |
| Australian Embassy,Tokyo | Japanese Embassy,Canberra |
Australia-Japan relations are thebilateral relations between theCommonwealth of Australia andJapan.
Geographically, the two countries are physically situated in theWestern Pacific Ocean area, with no land borders to other nations.[1][2] The relationships are generally warm and have since continued to grow strong over the years, both nations being considerably close, substantial and driven by mutual interests, with both nations having close ties with the Western world. Japan is one of Australia's major economic partners: it is Australia's “second largest trading partner and an increasingly important source of capital investment". In recent times, the relations have expanded beyond strong economic and commercial links to other spheres, including culture, tourism, defense and scientific cooperation.[3]
Tensions were high in the early stage of the relationship, such asWorld War II, and Japan's perceived economic domination during the 1980s and early 1990s.[4] However, the Australian government and business leaders see Japan as a vital export market and an essential element in Australia's future growth and prosperity in the Asia-Pacific region. Japan, for its part, regards Australia as an important partner, a reliable source of energy, minerals and other primary products, a popular tourist destination and the only other middle-ranking economic power in theAsia-Pacific. Australia's former Prime MinisterTony Abbott in 2013 hailed Japan as Australia's closest friend in Asia and proceeded on creating aFree Trade Agreement between the two nations in the coming year.[5] Australia and Japan both acknowledge each other as key strategic partners within the Asia-Pacific, with both being prosperousliberal democracies and key allies of theUnited States. FormerDefence MinisterMarise Payne described Japan as a "key partner" in the region; for his part,Japanese Prime MinisterFumio Kishida described the relationship as the linchpin of security in the Indo-Pacific.[citation needed]
Australia maintains an embassy inTokyo, a consulate-general inOsaka.[6] Japan maintains an embassy inCanberra, consulates-general inSydney,Melbourne,Brisbane, andPerth, along with a consulate inCairns.[7] Both countries are members of regional groupings such asAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation andComprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership.[8]
Anthropologists have noted that JapaneseJomon skulls and the skulls ofAinu people (descendants of the Jomon) shared certain physical traits withIndigenous Australians more than they did with modernEast Asians, like theHan Chinese or the laterYayoi Japanese settlers.[9] Fossils found inOkinawa (dated around 20,000 years ago) were theorized to be closely related to Australia’sKeilor remains, suggesting a common ancestor in the Pacific region.[10]
Between 1635 and 1854, Japanese citizens were in a self-imposed period of isolation from the outside world, which limited their knowledge of the world. Australia began appearing on Japanese maps towards the end of the 18th century, which was prior to its colonization by the British. Up until 1794, the Japanese drew Australia as being double its actual size, withNew Guinea still attached.[11] A 1791Russian map with Australia depicted correctly reached Japan in 1792, and influenced their later maps. This Russian map arrived in Japan throughDaikokuya Kōdayū, who came into contact with Russians in 1783, after getting shipwrecked onAmchitka Island in the North Pacific (part ofAlaska'sAleutian Islands, then controlled by Russia).[11] Kōdayū lived among Russians and the nativeAleuts, who enacted an uprising in 1784, before eventually being returned home to Japan in October 1792.[12]
The first recorded import of Australian coal by Japan occurred in 1865, and the first recorded Japanese imports of Australian wool occurred in 1888.[13] The first Japanese person known to have settled in Australia was a merchant who migrated to Queensland in 1871. By the start of theAustralian Federation in 1901, it was estimated that Australia had 4000 Japanese immigrants, mostly based aroundTownsville where the Japanese government had established its first consulate in 1896. The immigrants worked mostly in the sugar cane and maritime industries including turtle,trochus,trepang and pearl harvesting.[14]
The Japanese government established a second consulate in Sydney in 1897, which was upgraded to the status of consulate-general in 1902.[15] In the 19th century and early 20th century, the Japanese used the termNan’yō (South Sea) to refer to Australia and neighboring areas such asMicronesia andIndonesia.[16] By the 1920s, the term evolved into two distinct subgroupings that divided the space into inner and outer parts: the inner orUchiNan’yō referred to the Micronesian island groups encompassingPalau, theCaroline Islands, theMariana Islands, theMarshall Islands, and theGilbert Islands; the outer orUraNan’yō took on a wider expanse of territory, extending into the Indonesian archipelago and stretching as far as Australia.[17]
Following thefederation of the Australian colonies in 1901, the new federal government formally enacted theWhite Australia policy with the aim of barring non-European peoples, including the Japanese, from immigrating to Australia. Hisakichi Eitaki, the Japanese consul in Sydney, lodged a formal protest to Prime MinisterEdmund Barton over the proposedImmigration Restriction Act 1901 and asked that Japanese citizens be exempted from thedictation test requirements as "the Japanese belong to an Empire whose standard of civilization is so much higher than that ofKanakas, Negroes, Pacific Islanders, Indians, or other Eastern peoples".[18]
In 1904, theWatson government introduced the so-called "passport agreement", whereby Japanese citizens were exempted from the dictation test if they bore a valid passport specifying the purpose and duration of their visits. This arrangement was similar to theGentlemen's Agreement of 1907 later established between the United States and Japan.[19] In 1905, theDeakin government passed theImmigration Restriction Amendment Act 1905, which amended the provisions of the dictation test to remove the reference to "any European language" to "any prescribed language". While the amended legislation did not contain any special provisions for Japanese citizens, it was seen as a concession to the Japanese following the Japanese victory in theRusso-Japanese War which reinforced Japan's military equality with European powers.[20] However, this was only a minor concession as it "made no difference to the Commonwealth's basic policy of excluding Japanese permanent settlers from Australia".[21]
Both countries were among the victoriousallied powers of World War I. At theParis Peace Conference, which resulted in the creation of theLeague of Nations, Australian prime ministerBilly Hughes strongly opposed the Japanese government'sRacial Equality Proposal.[22] Hughes believed the proposal was a ploy for the Japanese to send migrants to New Guinea (which Australia controlled at the time) as part of their southward expansion efforts. After World War I, the Japanese had gained control of most Micronesian islands from Germany, and Hughes viewed New Guinea as being an important buffer between these areas and Australia.[23]
In 1930–31, Japan was "Australia's third most important trading partner".[13] Economic relations continued to flourish, and by the mid-1930s, Japan had become Australia's second largest export market after theUnited Kingdom.
Relations with Japan were the primary focus of theAustralian Eastern Mission of 1934, a diplomatic tour of East and South-East Asia led by deputy prime ministerJohn Latham.[24] Latham met with Japanese foreign ministerKōki Hirota in May 1934 and covered a range of topics, including theManchurian question and Japanese readmission to the League of Nations. This meeting marked the first direct interaction between government ministers of the two countries and has been described by one writer as "one of the most important in Australian diplomatic history".[25]
DuringWorld War II, Australian territory wasdirectly threatened by Japanese invasion, and Japanese forcesattacked Darwin,Broome, andSydney Harbour. Australia represented Japan's southernmost region of operation in thePacific theater, which covered an area of the Pacific Ocean extending as far north as the Aleutian Islands.[26] In 1941, the ethnic Japanese population in Australia was interned, and most were deported to Japan at the end of the war.[27] Australian forces played an active combat role in battles throughout theSoutheast Asia andSouth West Pacific theater of World War II, most notable events of the war among both parties were theKokoda Track campaign and theSandakan Death Marches (of which in 2014, the then Japanese Prime MinisterShinzo Abe offered his sincere condolences on behalf of the Japanese people to the Australian Parliament).[28] Australian forces also played a significant role in the post-warOccupation of Japan.
The first time a large number of Australians were in Japan was during the postwarOccupation of Japan. Australians were part of theBritish Commonwealth Occupation Force. Around 16,000 Australians served in the force. For the entire length of its history the BCOF had an Australian officer. The Australian contribution to the force was 4,700 infantry, 5,300 base personnel, 2,200 from theRoyal Australian Air Force, and 130 from the Australian General Hospital. TheRoyal Australian Navy was also present as part of theBritish Pacific Fleet.For two-thirds of the period of occupation the Commonwealth was represented solely by Australians.[29]
Australia played a minor role in theJapan campaign in the last months of the war and was preparing to participate in theinvasion of Japan at the time the war ended. Several Australian warships operated with theBritish Pacific Fleet (BPF) during theBattle of Okinawa and Australian destroyers later escorted British aircraft carriers and battleships during attacks on targets in theJapanese home islands.[30] Despite its distance from Japan, Australia was the BPF's main base and a large number of facilities were built to support the fleet.[31]
Australia's participation in the planned invasion of Japan would have involved elements of all three services fighting as part of Commonwealth forces. It was planned to form a new10th Division from existing AIF personnel which would form part of theCommonwealth Corps with British,Canadian andNew Zealand units. The corps' organisation was to be identical to that of a US Army corps, and it would have participated in the invasion of the Japanese home island ofHonshū which was scheduled for March 1946.[32] Australian ships would have operated with the BPF and US Pacific Fleet and two RAAF heavy bomber squadrons and a transport squadron were scheduled to be redeployed from Britain to Okinawa to join thestrategic bombardment of Japan as part ofTiger Force.[33]
General Blamey signed theJapanese Instrument of Surrender on behalf of Australia during the ceremony held on boardUSS Missouri on 2 September 1945.[34] Several RAN warships wereamong the Allied ships anchored inTokyo Bay during the proceedings.[35] Following the main ceremony on boardMissouri, Japanese field commanders surrendered to Allied forces across the Pacific theatre. Australian forces accepted the surrender of their Japanese opponents at ceremonies conducted at Morotai, several locations in Borneo, Timor, Wewak, Rabaul, Bougainville and Nauru.[36]
Diplomatic relations between Australia and Japan were re-established in 1952, following the termination of theAllied occupation, andHaruhiko Nishi was appointed as Japanese ambassador to Australia. In 1957, Australian Prime MinisterRobert Menzies visited Japan with the aim of strengthening economic and political ties between the two countries.[37][38]
In Australia, trade ministerJohn McEwen led a push for closer economic ties with Japan in the early 1950s, seeing the resumption with trade as important for Australian producers as Australia sought new markets outside the pre-war framework ofImperial Preference.[39] After years of negotiations, McEwen and his Japanese counterpartKishi Nobusuke signed the Japan–Australia Commerce Agreement (JACA) in July 1957, with each country conferringmost favoured nation status on the other and Australia providing a commitment to revoke its Article 35 exception to theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which had allowed it to discriminate against Japan.[40] The removal of the Article 35 exception eventually occurred in 1960 after McEwen secured Japanese concessions on imports of Australian beef. The final discriminatory trade provisions were removed in a new agreement signed in 1963.[41] The JACA "ushered in a new era of Australian trade which would make Japan immeasurably Australia's biggest trading partner".[42]
In 1976, Australia and Japan signed theBasic Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which established a broad framework of principles to guide and enhance future bilateral relations in the political, economic, cultural and other fields. The treaty was historically significant as the first comprehensive treaty of its kind for both countries.[43] The first proposal for a comprehensive treaty had been raised by the Japanese delegation in May 1970 at the eighth annual meeting of the Australia-Japan Business Cooperation Committee (AJBCC).[44] A more formal request was raised in October at the Australia-Japan Official Level Talks and then reaffirmed by the Japanese Ambassador inCanberra in 1971 who asked that the prospect of a treaty be "seriously looked at".[45] Formal negotiations took place over a three-year period and encompassed multiple Australian and Japanese governments.[46]
By the late 1980s, Australia and Japan had moved beyond a purely bilateral trade relationship to become among the primary architects of Asia-Pacific regionalism, a collaboration that culminated in the 1989 establishment of theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Prior to the formation of APEC, Japanese and Australian leaders had already collaborated on the founding of three previous regional institutions: thePacific Basin Economic Council (PBEC), the Pacific Trade and Development (PAFTAD) forum and thePacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC). The initial public proposal for APEC was delivered by Australian Prime MinisterBob Hawke during a state visit toSeoul in January 1989, and given institutional form a mere 9 months later,[47] since becoming a quintessential example of effective Australianmiddle power diplomacy. The structural blueprint for the forum had already been co-developed by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI). It has been claimed that Japan deliberately chose to act as a "silent partner" in the foundation of APEC, and encouraged Australia to take the lead because a Japanese-led proposal might have triggered regional anxieties regarding Japan's wartime history and economic dominance.[48] APEC initially consisted of 12 countries from across thePacific Rim, including Australia,Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, theRepublic of Korea,Malaysia, New Zealand, thePhilippines,Singapore,Thailand, and the United States. By 1998, it had expanded to 21 Pacific Rim countries, includingChina, Russia,Papua New Guinea and countries inLatin America. However, no new members have been admitted since 1998, in order to focus on managing the already broad array of countries.[49]
A number of Australian politicians have been awarded theOrder of the Rising Sun, the first national decoration awarded by the Japanese government. Recipients include former Prime Ministers of Australia such asEdmund Barton,Robert Menzies,John McEwen,Malcolm Fraser, Bob Hawke andJohn Howard.[50][51]
Australia and Japan have agreed to work together towards the reform of theUnited Nations, including the realisation of Japan's permanent membership of theSecurity Council, and to strengthen various regional forums, including not only APEC, but also theASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) and theEast Asia Summit (EAS).[citation needed]
In March 2007, Australia and Japan signed a joint security pact.[52][53][54] The scope of security cooperation includes:
During the deployment of theJapan Self-Defense Forces on ahumanitarian and reconstruction mission toIraq from 2004 to 2006, Australian units assisted Japanese Special Forces in the protection of Japanese bases.[citation needed]
Diplomatic relations have come under pressure over ideological differences regarding Japan's scientific whaling program. In May 2010, Australia started legal action to halt Japanesewhale hunts,[55] despite senior Australian officials and bureaucrats expressing the opinion that the legal action would likely fail.[56] Japan's repeated requests that Australia cease its support for Sea Shepherd's violent attacks upon its whaling fleet have been refused. Although in 2013, Foreign MinisterJulie Bishop stated while on a diplomatic trip to Japan that theAustralian Government does not officially supportSea Shepherd and disapproves of Sea Shepherd and their violent activities in halting whaling.[57][58]
This turned around in 2013 with the newAbbott government calling Japan Australia's "closest friend" in Asia, when Japanese Prime MinisterShinzo Abe visited Australia to conclude theJapan–Australia Economic Partnership Agreement and to address the future of the relationship between Australia and Japan, being the first Japanese Prime Minister to address theParliament of Australia.[59][60]
With the newTurnbull government starting in 2015, Prime MinisterMalcolm Turnbull made a few changes to the bilateral relationship between Australia and Japan. This included a slight pullback in terms of the recent bid for the upgrade of theRoyal Australian Navy submarine fleet in 2016, which the new government eventually decided on the French bid, therefore resulting in slight outcry from theJapanese Government; its worth noting that the previous Australian Prime MinisterTony Abbott had closely hinted for his government to choose the Japanese bid over both the French and German bids.[61]
However, Prime Minister Turnbull decided to stimulate values from the previous Abbott government to his government by incorporating themes such as the "closest friend" in Asia. This was seen with increasing bilateral ties in terms of military co-operation, trade, and cultural friendship. In late 2016, Turnbull stopped by on a lighting trip to Tokyo and started to develop a close relationship with Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, following his predecessor's example. Abe later visited Turnbull in Sydney early 2017 during a pivot toSouth-East Asia, where both increased military, trade, cultural, and sporting ties. Both also discussed theSouth China Sea Crisis,North Korea, and their anxiety to co-operate with their mutual ally, theUnited States'new Trump Administration.[62]
In December 2021, Australia and Japan, along with the United States, pledged a new undersea internet cable for the Micronesian countriesNauru,Kiribati and theFederated States of Micronesia.[63] That year, the governments of Australia and Japan also decided to fund two major law enforcement developments in the Marshall Islands.[64]
At a virtual summit on 6 January 2022, Japanese Prime MinisterFumio Kishida and Australian Prime MinisterScott Morrison formally signed theReciprocal Access Agreement (RAA) - to allow their respective militaries to work seamlessly with each other on defence and humanitarian operations.[65]
During the 2022 Australia-Japan leaders meeting inPerth, Australian Prime MinisterAnthony Albanese and Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida agreed to boost Japan's access to hydrogen, LNG and minerals to improve energy security while making a shared push to hit net zero. The two countries have also promised to help otherIndo-Pacific countries in their efforts to combat climate change. Albanese said that there was a common desire shared by Australia and Japan for peace in the Indo-Pacific. He also said that "We concurred that our special strategic partnership has risen to a new and higher level."[66]
In 2024 it was announced that members of the JapaneseAmphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade would be stationed inDarwin, where they would serve alongside Australian and American forces.[67]
In 2026, Australia and Japan celebrated 50 years of the Basic Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation. To honor the occasion, Japan's Ambassador to Australia Kazuhiro Suzuki delivered an address at the National Press Club in Canberra, titled "Girt by sea and in the same boat: 50 years of Japan-Australia relations and beyond".[68]
Australian trade had shifted away from otherCommonwealth countries toward Asia around the 1960s and 1970s. Japan in particular had emerged as the leading trading partner. In 1966–67, Japan surpassed the United Kingdom "to become the largest market for Australian exports".[13] Japan is now the second largest export market for Australia (after China), although Japan is ranked only third as a source of imports to Australia after the United States and China.[citation needed] Because of this, Australia has had a trade surplus with Japan.
As Japan protects its agriculture, Australia faces quotas, high tariffs, and standards barriers in exporting agricultural products including beef, butter, and apples to Japan. Japan is "Australia's largest beef export market, taking 35.8% of all beef shipped in 2011".[69]
Negotiations commenced in 2007 on a bilateral free trade agreement between Australia and Japan.[13]
As Australia trades raw minerals to Japan for large amounts of earnings, while Japan trades technology such as televisions, computers and cars. Japan is one of the leading suppliers of a number of manufactured goods imported to Australia: Japan has been the principal source of cars and motorcycles being imported to Australia.[13]
According toAustralian Bureau of Statistics data from 2006, 40,968 Australian people claimed Japanese ancestry.[70][71] According to Japan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, there were approximately 9,900,Australian citizens resident in Japan as of 30 June 2017.[72]
In 2018, Japan was the fifth largest source of tourism for Australia, with 484,000 Japanese citizens visiting Australia that year. It placed behind the United Kingdom, the United States, New Zealand and China.[73][74] Visitors from Japan to Australia peaked at 814,000 in 1997.[75] According to data fromGoogle, Japan was Australia's top-searched destination between 2002 and 2022, ranking ahead of New Zealand.[76]
In 2023, Japan became the fourth most-visited overseas destination for Australians behind New Zealand, Indonesia and India.[77] That year, it ranked as the eight largest source of tourism to Japan, with nearly one million of the 36.8 million visitors that year being from Australia.[78][79]
Qantas,Jetstar,Japan Airlines andAll Nippon Airways all offer direct flights between Australia and Japan.[citation needed]
Both nations are members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership,G-20 major economies,Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,United Nations,International Monetary Fund,World Trade Organization, and among others. Australia and Japan were also part ofTrans-Pacific Partnership, for the boost of Indo-Pacific cooperation. Universities in both countries are members ofAssociation of Pacific Rim Universities, an organization founded in 1997.[80]
Since 1989, Japan has been a dialogue partner of thePacific Islands Forum, which Australia was a founding member of in 1971. The organization was created to serve as a regional body for Pacific Island countries, but did not include island countries near Asia such as Japan and the Philippines.[81] Between the end of World War II and the mid-1980s, Japan had been less politically engaged with geographically-adjacent Micronesian islands, due to the United States gaining control of these islands, with some of the islands later gaining independence from the US beginning in the late 1980s. Japan also viewed the non-US controlled islands inMelanesia andPolynesia as being part of theCommonwealth's zone of influence or Australia and New Zealand's zone of influence, and was merely content with having relations with Australia and New Zealand, rather than developing deep ties with the islands themselves.[82] In 1997, Japan launched the Pacific Islands Leaders Meeting (PALM). This is a summit held every three years between Japan and the Pacific Islands Forum members to discuss regional goals.[83]
In 1980, Australia and Japan agreed on aworking holiday scheme for young people from both countries. The working holiday program was the first one for Japan.[84]
According to a 2017BBC World Service Poll, 78% ofAustralians view Japan's influence positively, with 17% expressing a negative view, making Australia one of the most pro-Japanese countries in the world.[85]
According to a 2021 poll by theLowy Institute, Japan is the third most positively viewed country by Australians, with a 73% positivity rating. It ranked behind the United Kingdom and New Zealand. In the 2020 version of the poll, it again ranked at third with a 69% rating, behind the United Kingdom and Canada (New Zealand was not included in the 2020 poll, nor was Canada in the 2021 poll).[86] In the 2022 version of the poll, Japan placed fourth with a 74% rating, behind the United Kingdom which was third with a 77% rating, and Canada and New Zealand, which were the two most favorably viewed countries with ratings of 80% and 86%.[87]
In a 2018 survey by the Japanese government, 65% of respondents had a favorable view of Australia.[88] It was the second most favorably viewed region in the survey, behind the United States, and garnered a higher rating than South Korea,Latin America,Africa, China and Russia, which was the least favorably viewed.[88] 71% of respondents also felt that Japan had a good relationship with Australia, while 74% felt that the future development of relations was important for the two countries and the Asia-Pacific area.[88]
As of 2021, Australia has had 112twin town and sister city affiliations with Japan, with the oldest affiliation dating back to 1963. Japan is currently the country with the highest number of Australian twin town and sister city affiliations.[89] Initiatives between twin towns include the establishment of a Japanese garden in the New South Wales town ofWellington, which housed over 126 different plant species, and which was officially opened in 1999 by Tadao Nakasai, mayor of Wellington's Japanese twin townŌsawano.[90] The sister cities ofNagoya andSydney have collaborated on student exchange programs and created relationships between their respective zoos, while the sister cities ofOsaka andMelbourne have created strong ties between business agencies, in addition to creating a 5,500 mile yacht race in 1987 called the "Melbourne Osaka Cup". In response to the1995 earthquake inKobe, the people of its Australian sister cityBrisbane raised $82,000. Conversely, following a2011 flooding in Brisbane, the Kobe City Government, City Assembly and Kobe City Government Workers' Union donated more than $50,000 to assist in the recovery effort.[91] Many sister cities in Japan also undertook fundraising activities for Australia during the bushfires in2019-2020.[92] In October 2017, Japanese Consul-General Keizo Takewaka visited several Australian twin towns and sister cities, includingOrange, New South Wales (affilated withUshiku),Coffs Harbor,New South Wales (affiliated withSasebo) andLiverpool, New South Wales (affiliated withToda).[93]
Canberra,Australian Capital Territory and
Nara,Nara Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1993)[89]
Armidale,New South Wales and
Kanuma,Tochigi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2001)[89]Bathurst, New South Wales and
Ōkuma,Fukushima Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1991)[89]Rockdale, New South Wales andYamatsuri,Fukushima Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2000)[89]Blue Mountains, New South Wales and
Sanda,Hyōgo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1988)[89]Camden, New South Wales and
Kashiwa,Chiba Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1997)[89]Campbelltown, New South Wales and
Koshigaya,Saitama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1984)[89]Canterbury Bankstown,New South Wales and
Suita,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1989)[89]Central Coast,New South Wales and
Edogawa,Tokyo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1988)[89]Coffs Harbour,New South Wales and
Sasebo,Nagasaki Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1988)[89]Dubbo,New South Wales and
Minokamo,Gifu Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1989)[89]Dubbo,New South Wales and
Ōsawano,Toyama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Wellington, New South Wales andŌsawano,Toyama Prefecture (affiliation signed c. 1999)[89][90]Federation Council, New South Wales andYokawa,Hyōgo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1997)[89]Georges River,New South Wales and
Shiroishi,Miyagi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1994; inactive)[89]Goulbourn,New South Wales and
Shibetsu,Hokkaido Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1999)[89]Lake Macquarie,New South Wales andHakodate,Hokkaido Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Lake Macquarie,New South Wales andTanagura,Fukushima Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1994)[89]Leeton, New South Wales and
Matsuyama,Ehime Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Lismore, New South Wales andYamatotakada,Nara Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1963)[89]Liverpool, New South Wales andToda,Saitama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1984)[89]Newcastle, New South Wales and
Ube,Yamaguchi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1980)[89]Manly, New South Wales and
Odawara,Kanagawa Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Manly, New South Wales andTaitō,Tokyo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1982)[89]Pittwater,New South Wales andTadaoka,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1995)[89]Warringah,New South Wales andChichibu,Saitama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1996)[89]Orange, New South Wales and
Ushiku,Ibaraki Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1990)[89]Penrith, New South Wales and
Fujieda,Shizuoka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1984)[89]Penrith, New South Wales and
Hakusan,Ishikawa Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1989)[89]Port Macquarie-Hastings,New South Wales and
Handa,Aichi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1990)[89]Port Stephens,New South Wales andKushiro,Hokkaido Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1994)[89]Port Stephens,New South Wales andTateyama,Chiba Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2009)[89]Port Stephens,New South Wales andYugawara,Kanagawa Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1998)[89]Queanbeyan,New South Wales and
Minami-Alps,Yamanashi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Singleton, New South Wales and
Takahata,Yamagata Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2005)[89]Cooma,New South Wales and
Kamoto,Kumamoto Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1975)[89]Snowy Valleys,New South Wales and
Kusatsu,Gunma Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1991)[89]Sutherland, New South Wales andChūō,Tokyo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1991)[89]Sydney,New South Wales andNagoya,Aichi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Tamworth, New South Wales and
Sannohe,Aomori Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2001)[89]Temora, New South Wales andIzumizaki,Fukushima Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1991)[89]Wentworth, New South Wales and
Azai,Shiga Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Wollongong,New South Wales andKawasaki,Kanagawa Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2001)[89]Central Coast,New South Wales and
Tanabe,Wakayama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1993; ended in 2009)[89]
Palmerston, Northern Territory andAridagawa,Wakayama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2010)[89]
Brisbane,Queensland andKobe,Hyōgo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1985)[89]Bundaberg,Queensland andSettsu,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1998)[89]Cairns,Queensland and
Minami,Tokushima Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1969)[89]Cairns,Queensland andOyama,Tochigi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2006)[89]Central Highlands,Queensland and
Ichinoseki,Iwate Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Fraser Coast,Queensland andKasukabe,Saitama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2014)[89]Gladstone, Queensland and
Saiki,Ōita Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1996)[89]Gold Coast, Queensland andTakasu,Hokkaido Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1995)[89]Ipswich, Queensland andNerima,Tokyo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1994)[89]Lockyer Valley,Queensland andAgeo,Saitama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2014)[89]Logan, Queensland andHirakata,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1995)[89]Logan, Queensland andShibukawa,Gunma Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1996)[89]Mackay, Queensland andMatsura,Nagasaki Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1989)[89]Moreton Bay,Queensland andSan'yō-Onoda,Yamaguchi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Noosa,Queensland andHiji,Ōita Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Rockhampton,Queensland and
Ibusuki,Kagoshima Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1980)[89]Southern Downs,Queensland andShiwa,Iwate Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Sunshine Coast, Queensland andTatebayashi,Gunma Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1996)[89]Toowoomba,Queensland andTakatsuki,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1991)[89]Townsville,Queensland andIwaki,Fukushima Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1991)[89]Townsville,Queensland andShunan,Yamaguchi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1990)[89]Townsville,Queensland andTokuyama,Yamaguchi Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Whitsunday,Queensland andSaikai,Nagasaki Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]
Adelaide,South Australia andHimeji,Hyōgo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1982)[89]Barossa Valley,South Australia and
Kumenan,Okayama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2002)[89]Clare and Gilbert Valleys,South Australia andYoshinaga,Okayama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1990)[89]Marion,South Australia andKokubunji,Tokyo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1993)[89]Port Lincoln,South Australia and
Muroto,Kōchi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1991)[89]Salisbury, South Australia andMuroto,Kōchi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2002)[89]Tea Tree Gully,South Australia andKamagata,Okayama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2007)[89]Holdfast Bay,South Australia andHayama,Kanagawa Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1997; inactive since 2010)[89]Victor Harbor, South Australia andYatsuka,Okayama Prefecture (affiliation signed c. 1990s; inactive)[94][89]
Clarence,Tasmania andAkkeshi,Hokkaido Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1982)[89]Devonport, Tasmania andMinamata,Kumamoto Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1996)[89]Hobart,Tasmania andYaizu,Shizuoka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1977)[89]Launceston, Tasmania andIkeda,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1965)[89]
Ballarat,Victoria andInagawa,Hyōgo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1988)[89]Brimbank,Victoria andShiroi,Chiba Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Frankston, Victoria andSusono,Shizuoka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1982)[89]Glen Eira,Victoria andŌgaki,Gifu Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Portland, Victoria andUchiura,Ishikawa Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Geelong,Victoria andIzumiōtsu,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Shepparton,Victoria andEsashi,Iwate Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1979)[89]Shepparton,Victoria andToyoake,Aichi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2003)[89]Hobson's Bay,Victoria andAnjō,Aichi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1994)[89]Latrobe,Victoria andTakasago,Hyōgo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2000)[89]Macedon Ranges,Victoria andTōkai,Aichi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1979)[89]Shepparton,Victoria andToyoake,Aichi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2003)[89]Melbourne,Victoria andOsaka,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1978)[89]Mildura,Victoria andKumatori,Osaka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2001)[89]Mitchell,Victoria andHonbetsu,Hokkaido Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1991)[89]Port Phillip,Victoria andŌbu,Aichi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1993)[89]Swan Hill,Victoria andYamagata,Yamagata Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1980)[89]Warrnambool,Victoria andMiura,Kanagawa Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Whitehorse,Victoria andMatsudo,Chiba Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1971)[89]Wyndham,Victoria andChiryū,Aichi Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2000)[89]
Albany, Western Australia andTomioka,Gunma Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2001)[89]Belmont, Western Australia andAdachi,Tokyo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1984)[89]Broome, Western Australia andTaiji,Wakayama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1981)[89]Bunbury, Western Australia andSetagaya,Tokyo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1992)[89]Busselton, Western Australia andSugito,Saitama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1996)[89]Fremantle,Western Australia andYokosuka,Kanagawa Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1979)[89]Geraldton, Western Australia andKosai,Shizuoka Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1998)[89]Melville, Western Australia andTakarazuka,Hyōgo Prefecture (affiliation signing year unknown)[89]Perth, Western Australia andKagoshima,Kagoshima Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1978)[89]Rockingham, Western Australia andAkō,Hyōgo Prefecture (affiliation signed in 1997)[89]Swan, Western Australia andInami,Toyama Prefecture (affiliation signed in 2006; inactive since 2019)[89]
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