Aurelian (/ɔːˈriːliən/;[4]Latin:Lucius Domitius Aurelianus; 9 Septemberc. 214 – c. November 275) was aRoman emperor who reigned from 270 to 275 during theCrisis of the Third Century. As emperor, he won an unprecedented series of military victories which reunited theRoman Empire after it had nearly disintegrated under the pressure ofbarbarian invasions and internal revolts. For his success in restoring the Empire's territorial integrity, Aurelian was honored with the titleRestitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World"). Born in modest circumstances, most likely inMoesia Superior, he entered the Roman army in 235 and climbed up the ranks. He went on to lead the cavalry of the emperorGallienus, until Gallienus'assassination in 268. Following that,Claudius Gothicus became emperor until his own death in 270. Claudius' brotherQuintillus then ruled for three months, before Aurelian took the empire for himself. Aurelian was chosen Roman emperor by theIllyriciani as one of themselves.[5]During his reign, he defeated theAlamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated theGoths,Vandals,Juthungi,Sarmatians, andCarpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of thePalmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered theGallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of theAurelian Walls inRome, the abandonment of the province ofDacia, and monetary reforms attempting to curb the devaluation of theRoman currency.AlthoughDomitian, two centuries earlier, was the first emperor who had demanded to be officially hailed asdominus et deus ('master and god'), these titles never occurred in written form on official documents until the reign of Aurelian.[6] His successes were instrumental in ending the crisis.
Many details about Aurelian's early life come from theHistoria Augusta and are considered unreliable. Comparative research with other sources from his era has rendered some details more secure than others. Aurelian was born on 9 September, a date recorded in theChronograph of 354.[7] The 6th-century chroniclerJohn Malalas wrote that he died at the age of 61, implying a birth in 214.[8] However, Malalas' chronicle is often described as "frequently unreliable",[9] and so any date thence inferred must—absent corroborating evidence from more credible sources—remain tentative.
TheHistoria Augusta describes him both as a Pannonian fromSirmium and as a native ofDacia Ripensis "which he founded so that he would have been a Moesian".Pseudo-Victor andJohn Xiphilinus place his birthplace in an area between Dacia Ripensis and Macedonia (overlapping withDacia Mediterranea). Modern research considers Dacia Ripensis as the more likely region. When he was born this region was part ofMoesia Superior. Aurelian was anIllyrian[10][11][12] like several other emperors of the late 3rd century (Illyrian emperors) all of whom shared a common military background.[13]Pseudo-Victor describes his father as acolonus (tenant farmer) who worked the lands of a senator named Aurelius. Aurelian's father was probably a veteran of the Roman army. He married the daughter of Aurelius from whom Aurelian received his name via his mother. TheHistoria Augusta describes her as "priestess ofSol", whose worship Aurelian promoted as Emperor (Sol Invictus).[14] These two propositions, together with the tradition that the clan Aurelius had been entrusted with the maintenance of that deity's cult in Rome, inspired the notion that this could explain the devotion to the sun-god that Aurelian was to manifest as emperor. However, it seems that this extrapolation of unverifiable facts is now generally accepted as being no more than just that.[15]
It is commonly accepted that Aurelian likely joined the army in 235, when he was around the age of twenty.[7] It is also generally assumed that, as a member of the lowest rank of society – albeit a citizen[b] – he would have enlisted in the ranks of the legions. Saunders suggests that his career is more easily understood if it is assumed that his family was of Roman settler origins with a tradition of military service and that he enlisted as an equestrian.[16] This would have opened up for him thetres militia – the three steps of the equestrian military career – one of the routes to higher equestrian office in the Imperial Service.[c] This could be a more expeditious route to senior military andprocuratorial offices than that pursued by ex-rankers, although not necessarily less laborious.[d] Although Saunders's conjecture as to Aurelian's early career is not supported by any evidence other than hisnomen which could indicate Italian settler ancestry — and even this is contested — his rise to the highest ranks is more easily understood if he did not have to start from the bottom. His suggestion has not been taken up by other academic authorities.
Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly must have built up a very solid reputation for military competence during the tumultuous mid-decades of the century. To be sure, the exploits detailed in theHistoria Augustavita Divi Aureliani, while not always impossible, are not supported by any independent evidence and one at least is demonstrably an invention typical of that author.[17] However, he was probably associated withGallienus's cavalry army and shone as an officer of that elite unit because, when he finally emerged in a historically reliable context in the early part of the reign ofClaudius II, he seems to have been its commander.[18]
The existence of Ulpius Crinitus has been doubted by manyhistorians.[19] If he did exist he would have been adux of theIllyrian andThracianlegions.[20] Ulpius was reportedly born in the city ofItalica, in modernSpain.[21] He took an interest in Aurelian's early career.[22] Aurelian was reportedly his deputy for a time. When a group ofGoths invaded Illyria and Thrace, Ulpius had fallen ill, so he ordered Aurelian to deal with the invaders. Aurelian was designated aslegate of the Third Legion. He used his force of 2,500auxiliaries, and the armies of fourGermanic chieftains to defeat theGoths in battle. Aurelian used the resources gained from the battles to enrich theprovinces. After the battle, Crinitus thankedValerian, the emperor at the time, for providing him with such a talented deputy.[19] Crinitus adopted Aurelian as his heir, either voluntarily or possibly through force.[23] Emperor Valerian attended the adoption ceremony which took place in the baths of Byzantium.[24] Following this, Crinitus disappeared from the historical record.[19][21] The Historia Augusta claims that Crinitus was portrayed, along with Aurelian, in the walls of theTemple of Sol, ordered built by Aurelian after his successful Palmyrene campaign. However, no traces of this building remain.[25]
Aurelian's successes as a cavalry commander ultimately made him a member of EmperorGallienus' entourage. In 268 Gallienus travelled toItaly and foughtAureolus, his former general and now usurper for the throne. Driving Aureolus back intoMediolanum, Gallienus promptly besieged his adversary in the city. During the siege, the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at the siege, participated and supported general Claudius for the purple — which is plausible.[26] In 268 or 269 Aurelian and his cavalry participated in the victory of Emperor Gallienus (or EmperorClaudius II Gothicus) over theGoths at theBattle of Naissus.[27][28]
Aurelian was married toUlpia Severina, about whom little is known. She was fromDacia.[29] They are known to have had a daughter together.[30]
Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers outside Mediolanum. The new emperor immediately ordered the Senate to deify Gallienus. Next, Claudius began to distance himself from those responsible for his predecessor's assassination, ordering the execution of those directly involved.[31]Aureolus was still besieged in Mediolanum and sought reconciliation with the new emperor, but Claudius had no sympathy for a potential rival. The emperor had Aureolus killed and one source implicates Aurelian in the deed, perhaps even signing the warrant for his death himself.[31]
During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: he was given command of the elite Dalmatian cavalry and soon promoted to overall head of the army after the emperor and what had been Emperor Claudius' own position before his acclamation.[31] The war against Aureolus and the concentration of forces in Italy allowed theAlamanni to break through theRhaetian limes along the upperDanube. Marching throughRaetia and theAlps unhindered, they entered northern Italy and began pillaging the area. In early 269, emperor Claudius and Aurelian marched north to meet the Alamanni, defeating them at theBattle of Lake Benacus.[32]
While still dealing with the defeated enemy, news came from theBalkans reporting large-scale attacks from theHeruli,Goths,Gepids, andBastarnae.[32] Claudius immediately dispatched Aurelian to the Balkans to contain the invasion as best he could until Claudius could arrive with his main army.[33] The Goths were besiegingThessalonica when they heard of emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon the siege and pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his Dalmatian cavalry and defeated them in a series of minor skirmishes, killing as many as three thousand of the enemy. Aurelian continued to harass the enemy, driving them northward intoUpper Moesia where emperor Claudius had assembled his main army. The ensuing battle was indecisive: the northward advance of the Goths was halted but Roman losses were heavy.[33]
Claudius could not afford another pitched battle, so he instead laid a successful ambush, killing thousands. However, the majority of the Goths escaped and began retreating south the way they had come. For the rest of year, Aurelian harassed the enemy with his Dalmatian cavalry.[34]
Now stranded in Roman territory, the Goths' lack of provisions began to take its toll. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' desperation, attacked them with the full force of his cavalry, killing many and driving the remainder westward intoThrace.[34] As winter set in, the Goths retreated into theHaemus Mountains, only to find themselves trapped and surrounded. The harsh conditions now exacerbated their shortage of food. However, the Romans underestimated the Goths and let their guard down, allowing the enemy to break through their lines and escape. Apparently emperor Claudius ignored advice, perhaps from Aurelian, and withheld the cavalry and sent in only the infantry to stop their break-out.
The determined Goths killed many of the oncoming infantry and were only prevented from slaughtering them all when Aurelian finally charged in with his Dalmatian cavalry. The Goths still managed to escape and continued their march through Thrace.[34] The Roman army continued to follow the Goths during the spring and summer of 270. Meanwhile, a devastating plague swept through the Balkans, killing many soldiers in both armies.
Emperor Claudius fell ill on the march to the battle and returned to his regional headquarters in Sirmium, leaving Aurelian in charge of operations against the Goths.[34] Aurelian used his cavalry to great effect, breaking the Goths into smaller groups which were easier to handle. By late summer the Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals and booty and were levied into the army or settled as farmers in frontier regions.[34] Aurelian had no time to relish his victories; in late August news arrived from Sirmium that emperor Claudius was dead.[35]
When Claudius died, his brotherQuintillus seized power with support of the Senate. With an act typical of theCrisis of the Third Century, the army refused to recognize the new emperor, preferring to support one of its own commanders: Aurelian was proclaimed emperor about August or September[36][37] (older sources argue for May)[38] by thelegions in Sirmium. Aurelian defeated Quintillus' troops, and was recognized as emperor by the Senate after Quintillus' death. The claim that Aurelian was chosen by Claudius on his death bed[39] can be dismissed as propaganda; later, probably in 272, Aurelian put his owndies imperii at the day of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus ausurper.[40]
With his base of power secure, he now turned his attention to Rome's greatest problems – recovering the vast territories lost over the previous two decades, and reforming theres publica.
Aurelian was a military commander, and during his reign he tried to keep legions' fidelity; this coin celebrated the CONCORDIA MILITVM, "concord of the soldiers" – in other words, harmony between the emperor and the military. Legend: IMP. C. AVRELIANVS AVG. / CONCORDIA MILITVM – XXIQ mint
In 248, EmperorPhilip the Arab had celebrated the millennium of the city of Rome with great and expensive ceremonies and games, and the Empire had given a tremendous proof of self-confidence.[41] In the following years, the Empire had to face a huge pressure from external enemies, while, at the same time, dangerous civil wars threatened the empire from within, with usurpers weakening the strength of the state. Also, the economic substrate of the state, agriculture and commerce, suffered from the disruption caused by the instability. On top of this, an epidemic swept through the Empire around 250, greatly diminishing manpower[42] both for the army and for agriculture.
The end result was that the Empire could not endure the blow of the capture of EmperorValerian in 260 by theSassanids. The eastern provinces found their protectors in the rulers of the city ofPalmyra, inSyria, whose autonomy grew until the formation of thePalmyrene Empire, which was successful in defending against the Sassanid threat. The western provinces, those facing thelimes of theRhine, seceded to form a third, autonomous state within the territories of the Roman Empire, which is now known as theGallic Empire.
In Rome, the Emperor was occupied with internal menaces to his power and with the defence ofItalia and the Balkans.
The first actions of the new Emperor were aimed at strengthening his own position in his territories. Late in 270, Aurelian campaigned in northernItalia against theVandals,Juthungi, andSarmatians, expelling them from Roman territory. To celebrate these victories, Aurelian was granted the title ofGermanicus Maximus.[43] The authority of the Emperor was challenged by severalusurpers—Septimius,Urbanus,Domitianus, and the rebellion ofFelicissimus—who tried to exploit the sense of insecurity of the empire and the overwhelming influence of the armies in Roman politics. Aurelian, being an experienced commander, was aware of the importance of the army, and his propaganda, known through his coinage, shows he wanted the support of the legions.[40]
The burden of the northern barbarians was not yet over, however. In 271, theAlamanni moved towards Italia, entering thePo plain and sacking the villages; they passed thePo River, occupiedPlacentia and moved towardsFano. Aurelian, who was in Pannonia to control theVandals' withdrawal, quickly entered Italia, but his army was defeated in anambush near Placentia (January 271). When the news of the defeat arrived in Rome, it caused great fear for the arrival of the barbarians, but Aurelian attacked the Alamanni camping near theMetaurus River, defeating them in theBattle of Fano, and forcing them to re-cross the Po river; Aurelian finally routed them atPavia. For this, he received the titleGermanicus Maximus. However, the menace of the Germanic people and a Germanic invasion was still perceived by the Romans as likely; therefore Aurelian resolved to build a new system of walls aroundRome that became known as theAurelian Walls.[44]
The emperor led his legions to the Balkans, where he defeated and routed the Goths beyond the Danube, killing the Gothic leaderCannabaudes, and assuming the title ofGothicus Maximus. However, he decided to abandon the province ofDacia, on the exposed north bank of the Danube, as it was too difficult and expensive to defend. He reorganized a new province of Dacia south of the Danube, inside the formerMoesia, calledDacia Aureliana, withSerdica as the capital.[45]
The Roman Empire by 271 A.D before the reconquest of thePalmyrene Empire and theGallic Empire by AurelianThe route of Aurelian's campaign against Palmyra.
In 272, Aurelian turned his attention to the lost eastern provinces of the empire, thePalmyrene Empire, ruled by QueenZenobia from the city ofPalmyra.[46] Zenobia had carved out her own empire, encompassingSyria,Palestine,Egypt and large parts ofAsia Minor. The Syrian queen cut off Rome's shipments of grain, and in a matter of weeks, the Romans started running low on bread. In the beginning, Aurelian had been recognized as Emperor, whileVaballathus, the son of Zenobia, held the title ofrex andimperator ("king" and "supreme military commander"), but Aurelian decided to invade the eastern provinces as soon as he felt his army to be strong enough.
Asia Minor was recovered easily; every city butByzantium andTyana surrendered to him with little resistance. Thefall of Tyana lent itself to a legend: Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great 1st-century philosopherApollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in a dream. Apollonius implored: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!"[47] Aurelian spared Tyana, and it paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the Emperor would not exact revenge upon them. Within six months, his armies stood at the gates of Palmyra, which surrendered when Zenobia tried to flee to theSassanid Empire.
Aurelian and the personification ofSol defeat the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG –oriens Augusti: the rising sun/star of Augustus. Legend: IMP. AVRELIANVS AVG. / ORIENS AVG. – XIR.
Eventually Zenobia and her son were captured and made to walk the streets of Rome in his triumph, the woman in golden chains. With the grain stores once again shipped to Rome, Aurelian's soldiers handed out free bread to the citizens of the city, and the Emperor was hailed a hero by his subjects. After a brief clash with the Persians and another in Egypt against the usurperFirmus, Aurelian was obliged to return to Palmyra in 273 when that city rebelled once more. This time, Aurelian allowed his soldiers to sack the city, and Palmyra never recovered. More honors came his way; he was now known asParthicus Maximus andRestitutor Orientis ("Restorer of the East").[40]
He took up the titleRestitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World"). This title was first assumed by Aurelian in late summer of 272, and had been carried previously by both Valerian and Gallienus.[29][e] The increased frequency of its usage was Aurelian's innovation.[49]
The rich province of Egypt was also recovered by Aurelian. The Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in Alexandria was burned to the ground. This section of the city once contained theLibrary of Alexandria, although the extent of the surviving Library in Aurelian's time is uncertain.
After Aurelian had succeeded in his reconquest of the Palmyrene Empire, he turned his attention to the Gallic Empire, beginning preparations for an invasion in 273. In early 274, Aurelian began to march into northern Gaul, while the leader of the Gallic Empire,Tetricus I, led his troops southward fromAugusta Treverorum to meet him. The armies of Aurelian and Tetricus met in February or March 274 at theBattle of Châlons, near modern-dayChâlons in north-eastern France.[50][51] Roman sources, including Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, theHistoria Augusta, andOrosius report that Tetricus had already made a deal with Aurelian, offering to betray his troops and surrender in exchange for an honourable defeat and no punishment, allegedly quoting the ghost ofPalinurus fromVirgil'sAeneid 6.365:eripe me his, invicte, malis [it] ('pluck me out, O undefeated one, from these troubles').[50][51] However, some modern historians have questioned this narrative and suggested that it may have been the product of Roman imperial propaganda.[50][51][52] According to Alaric Watson, the higher discipline of the Roman forces, coupled with the greater military command of Aurelian, tipped the harsh battle in Roman favor, and after Tetricus was captured in the combat, the morale of the Gallic forces broke.[53]
Tetricus surrendered either directly after his defeat or later; the latest possible date for his surrender was March 274, when the Gallic mints switched from minting coins of Tetricus I and II to those of Aurelian.[50][51][54]
A Radiate of Aurelian, obverse. Legend: IMP. AVRELIANVS AVG.A Radiate of Aurelian, reverse. Legend: ORIENS AVG. – EXXI.
Aurelian was a reformer, and settled many important functions of the imperial apparatus, dealing with the economy and religion. He restored many public buildings, reorganized the management of the food reserves, set fixed prices for the most important goods, and prosecuted misconduct by the public officers.[55]
Aurelian strengthened the position of the Sun godSol Invictus as the main divinity of the Roman pantheon. His intention was to give to all the peoples of the Empire, civilian or soldiers, easterners or westerners, a single god they could believe in without betraying their own gods. The centre of the cult wasa new temple, built in 274 and dedicated on December 25[56] of that year in theCampus Agrippae in Rome, with great decorations financed by the spoils of the Palmyrene Empire.
During his short rule, Aurelian seemed to follow the principle of "one faith, one empire", which would not be made official until theEdict of Thessalonica. He appears with the titledeus et dominus natus ("God and born ruler") on some of his coins, a style also later adopted by Diocletian.Lactantius argued that Aurelian would have outlawed all the other gods if he had had enough time. He was recorded by Christian historians as having organizedpersecutions.[57][58][59][60]
Aurelian's reign records the only uprising of mint workers. TherationalisFelicissimus, a senior public financial official whose responsibilities included supervision of the mint at Rome, revolted against Aurelian. The revolt seems to have been caused by the fact that the mint workers, and Felicissimus first, were accustomed to stealing the silver for the coins and producing coins of inferior quality. Aurelian wanted to eliminate this, and put Felicissimus on trial. Therationalis incited the mint workers to revolt: the rebellion spread in the streets, even if it seems that Felicissimus was killed immediately, presumably executed.
The Palmyrene rebellion in Egypt had probably reduced thegrain supply to Rome, thus disaffecting the population to the emperor. This rebellion also had the support of some senators, probably those who had supported the election ofQuintillus, and thus had something to fear from Aurelian.
Aurelian ordered thecohortes urbanae ("urban cohorts"), reinforced by some regular troops of the imperial army, to attack the rebelling mob: the resulting battle, fought on theCaelian hill, marked the end of the revolt, even if at a high price (some sources give the figure, probably exaggerated, of 7,000 casualties).[55] Many of the rebels were executed; also some of the supporting senators were put to death. The mint of Rome was closed temporarily, and the institution of several other mints caused the main mint of the empire to lose its hegemony.[61]
His monetary reformation included the introduction ofantoniniani containing 5% silver. They bore the markXXI (or its Greek numeral formKA), which meant - according to some researchers[62] - that twenty of such coins would contain the same silver quantity of an old silverdenarius.[63][f] Considering that this was an improvement over the previous situation gives an idea of the severity of the economic situation Aurelian faced. The Emperor struggled to introduce the new "good" coin by recalling all the old "bad" coins before their introduction.[40]
A very large number of rare gold coins of Aurelian have been discovered as part of theLava Treasure inCorsica, France, in the 1980s.[64]
Rome had been distributing grain to its poorest citizens at a reduced price since 123 BC, and for free since 58 BC through theCura Annonae. Aurelian is usually credited with changing or completing the change of the food distribution system from grain or flour to bread, and adding olive oil, salt, and pork to the products distributed to the populace. These products had been distributed sporadically before. Aurelian is also credited with increasing the size of the loaves of bread without increasing their price – a measure that was undoubtedly popular with the Romans who were not receiving free bread and other products through the dole.[65]
Aurelian is believed to have terminatedTrajan'salimenta program. Roman prefectTitus Flavius Postumius Quietus was the last known official in charge of thealimenta, in 271. If Aurelian "did suppress this food distribution system, he most likely intended to put into effect a more radical reform." Indeed, around this time, Aurelian reformed the Cura Annonae to replace the dole of grain by a dole of bread, salt and pork, as well as subsidized prices for other goods such as oil and wine.[66]
The deaths of the Sassanid KingsShapur I (272) andHormizd I (273) in quick succession, and the rise to power of a weakened ruler (Bahram I), presented an opportunity to attack the Sassanid Empire, and in 275 Aurelian set out for another campaign against the Sassanids. On his way, he suppressed a revolt inGaul – possibly against Faustinus, an officer or usurper of Tetricus – and defeated barbarian marauders inVindelicia (Germany).
However, Aurelian never reached Persia, as he was murdered while waiting in Thrace to cross into Asia Minor. As an administrator, he had been strict and had handed out severe punishments to corrupt officials or soldiers. A secretary of his (called Eros byZosimus) had told a lie on a minor issue. In fear of what the emperor might do, he forged a document listing the names of high officials marked by the emperor for execution and showed it to collaborators. Thenotarius Mucapor and other high-ranking officers of thePraetorian Guard, fearing punishment from the emperor, murdered him shortly after October 275 (Tacitus began his reign in November or December), inCaenophrurium,Thrace.[67][36]
Aurelian's enemies in the Senate briefly succeeded in passingdamnatio memoriae on the emperor, but this was reversed before the end of the year, and Aurelian, like his predecessor Claudius II, was deified asDivus Aurelianus.
There is some evidence that Aurelian's wife,Ulpia Severina, who had been declaredAugusta in 274, ruled the empire in her own right for some time after his death, although this is just speculative.[68][30] Sources hint at aninterregnum between Aurelian's death and the election ofMarcus Claudius Tacitus as his successor. Additionally, some of Ulpia's coins appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death.[30]
The city ofOrléans in France is named after Aurelian. Originally namedCenabum, Aurelian rebuilt and renamed itAurelianum orAureliana Civitas ("city of Aurelian",cité d'Aurélien), which evolved intoOrléans.[69]
^His full name, with honorific andvictory titles, wasImperator Caesar Lucius Domitius Aurelianus pius felix invictus Augustus, pontifex maximus, Germanicus maximus, Gothicus maximus, Parthicus maximus, Carpicus maximus, tribunicia potestate VI, consul III,imperator, pater patriae, proconsul, restitutor orbis.[3]
^Had Aurelian's family been enfranchised by virtue of theConstitutio Antoniniana (212) hisnomen would have been "Aurelius".
^Thetres militia were: (i) prefecture of a cohort of auxiliary infantry; (ii) tribunate of a legionary cohort; and (iii) prefecture of anala of auxiliary cavalry.
^Wilkes, John J. (1992).The Illyrians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 262.ISBN0-631-19807-5.With the accession of M. Aurelius Claudius in AD 268 following his victory over the Goths at Naissus, the Empire came under the control of the leading Illyriciani at Sirmium. The new ruler came from southern Illyricum, either Dalmatia or Dardania, but his reign ended with his death from a plague at Sirmium in AD 270. Rejecting the Senate's proposal of Claudius' brother, the Illyriciani chose instead one of themselves, the formidable Domitius Aurelianus, probably a native of Sirmium.
^Halsberghe, G. H. (1972).The Cult of Sol Invictus. Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. Brill. p. 152. Retrieved13 April 2018.
^For instance,vita Divi Aureliani paras 5.5–6, 6.3–5, and 7.1–2. If he ever was a tribune of a legion as suggested in 7.1–2 it could not have been withLegio VII Gallicana as that unit never existed.
^Aurelius Victor, xxxiii,21. Other sources do not cite Aurelian among those who conspired against Gallienus, though different sources have claimed that he was the one who called Gallienus out of his tent under a proposed "conspiracy" at the point Gallienus was stabbed.
^J. Bray (1997), pp. 279–288, Pat Southern 2001, p. 109. Also see Alaric Watson 1999, p. 215, David S. Potter 2004, p. 266, Herwig Wolfram,History of the Goths (transl. by Thomas J. Dunlap), University of California Press, 1988.ISBN0-520-06983-8, p. 54
^abcKörner, Christian (23 December 2008)."Aurelian (A.D. 270–275)".De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families.Archived from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved6 January 2011.
^Clauss, Manfred (2001).Die römischen Kaiser : 55 historische Portraits von Caesar bis Iustinian (in German). München: Beck. p. 250.ISBN978-3-406-47288-6.
^On the different theories regarding the XXI see Schwenter, Johannes (2023). "Aurelians Münzreform - das Kürzel XXI" [Aurelian's coin reform - the abbreviation XXI].Jahrbuch für Numismatik und Geldgeschichte73, pp. 195-204.
Körner, Christian (20 July 2001)."Aurelian".De Imperatoribus Romanis.Archived from the original on 20 October 2006. Retrieved4 November 2006. (Korner:2001)
Saunders, Randall Titus (1992).A biography of the Emperor Aurelian (AD 270–275). Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Dissertation Services.
Southern, Pat (2001).The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. p. 125.ISBN0-415-23944-3.
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