Consumption ofAtropa bella-donna has unpredictable effects.[3] The antidote for belladonna poisoning isphysostigmine orpilocarpine, the same as foratropine.[8]
The highly toxic ripe fruit can be distinguished from that of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) by its larger berry size and larger stellate calyx (with long, broad and somewhat accrescent lobes protruding beyond the fruit) and the fact thatA. bella-donna bears its berries singly, whilstS. nigrum bears spherical berries resembling tiny tomatoes in umbellate clusters.
As with most names in biology, thescientific name differs from thecommon name. The common name of this plant isdeadly nightshade or simplybelladonna. The name entered English whenJohn Gerard used it in his illustratedHerball, or Generall Historie of Plantes, first published in 1597, displacingdwale as the English common name for this plant.[9] The English translation of 1633[10] was seen as the best and most exhaustive work of its kind and a standard reference for some time.[11]
Its correct scientific name is hyphenatedbella-donna.[1] In his original description, Linnaeus called itAtropa bella donna with a space between 'bella' and 'donna',[12] and this space is treated by theInternational Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Article 60.11 Ex.42) as an error to be replaced by a hyphen.[13]
Atropa bella-donna has a long history of use as a medicine, cosmetic, and poison.[14][4][15] Known originally under various folk names (such as "deadly nightshade" in English), the plant was namedAtropa bella-donna byCarl Linnaeus (1707–1778) when he devised his classification system. Linnaeus chose the genus nameAtropa because of the poisonous properties of these plants.Atropos (lit. "unturning one"), one of theThree Fates in Greek mythology, is said to have cut a person's thread of life after her sisters had spun and measured it. Linnaeus chose the species namebella-donna ("beautiful woman" in Italian) in reference to the cosmetic use of the plant during theRenaissance. While it has since been claimed[16] that women used belladonna to dilate their pupils in order to appear more attractive, this claim appears to date from much more recently and to conflate earlier sources which described its use for complexion with a later association with dilation of the pupils.[citation needed]
Extracts ofplants in the deadly nightshade family have been in use since at least the 4th century BC, whenMandragora (mandrake) was recommended byTheophrastus for treatment of wounds, gout, and sleeplessness, and as a lovepotion. In the first century BC,Cleopatra used atropine-rich extracts from the Egyptianhenbane plant (also a nightshade) for the above-mentioned purpose of dilating thepupils of her eyes.[citation needed]
The use of deadly nightshades as a poison was known in ancient Rome, as attested by the rumour that the Roman empressLivia Drusilla used the juice ofAtropa bella-donna berries to murder her husband, the emperorAugustus.[17]
In the first century AD,Dioscorides recognised wine of mandrake as ananaesthetic for treatment of pain or sleeplessness, to be given prior to surgery or cautery.[18]The use of nightshade preparations for anaesthesia, often in combination withopium, persisted throughout the Roman and Islamic empires and continued in Europe until superseded in the 19th century by modern anaesthetics.
The modern pharmacological study ofAtropa bella-donna extracts was begun by theGermanchemistFriedlieb Ferdinand Runge (1795–1867). In 1831, the German pharmacist Heinrich F. G. Mein (1799–1864)[19] succeeded in preparing a pure crystalline form of the active substance, namedatropine.[20][21]
Atropa bella-donna is a branchingherbaceous perennialrhizomatoushemicryptophyte, often growing as asubshrub from a fleshy rootstock. Plants can reach a height of 2 m (7 ft) (more commonly 1.5 m (5 ft)), and have ovate leaves up to 18 cm (7 in) long. The bell-shapedflowers are dull purple tinged yellow-green toward the base and are faintly scented. Thefruits areberries, which are green, ripening to a shiny black, and approximately 1.5 cm (0.6 in) in diameter. The berries are sweet and are consumed by animals (mainly birds[22]) that disperse theseeds in their droppings, even though they contain toxicalkaloids (seeToxicity).[23] There is a pale-yellow flowering form with pale yellow fruit calledAtropa bella-donna var.lutea.
A. bella-donna is sometimes confused with the much less poisonousblack nightshadeSolanum nigrum, belonging to a different genus withinSolanaceae.[24] A comparison of the fruit shows that black nightshade berries are spherical, have a dull lustre and grow in clusters, whereas the berries of deadly nightshade are much glossier, twice as large, somewhat flattened and are borne singly. Another distinction is that black nightshade flowers are not tubular but white and star-shaped, bearing a central cone of yellow anthers.
Atropa bella-donna is native across temperate southern, central and eastern Europe, northwesternAfrica (Morocco andAlgeria), and in southwest Asia inTurkey,Iran and theCaucasus.[1] In theBritish Isles it is native only inEngland, where it grows on calcareous soils, ondisturbed ground, field margins, hedgerows and open woodland; it is more widespread as an alien, including inWales,Scotland, and alsoIreland, where it is a relic of cultivation as a medicinal herb.[25][22]
It has long been introduced and cultivated outside its native range, and is nownaturalised north and west of its native range in Europe, and in parts ofNorth America,China,Australia, andNew Zealand,[1] where it is often found in shady, moist locations withlimestone-richsoils. In southern Sweden it was recorded in Flora of Skåne in 1870 as grown inapothecary gardens near Malmö.[26] It is considered aweed species in parts of the world,[27] where it colonises areas with disturbed soils.[28]
Belladonna cultivation, Eli Lilly and Company, 1919
Atropa bella-donna is rarely grown in gardens, but, when grown, it is usually for its large uprighthabit and showy berries.[29]Germination of the small seeds is often difficult, due to hard seed coats that cause seeddormancy. Germination takes several weeks under alternating temperature conditions, but can be sped up with the use ofgibberellic acid.[30] Seedlings require sterile soil to prevent damping off -the process of preventing soil-borne pathogens from weakening the seeds from germination- and root disturbance during transplanting, ensuring they do not resent root disturbance.[31]
The nameAtropa bella-donna was published byCarl Linnaeus inSpecies Plantarum in 1753.[34]Atropa is derived from the name of the Greek goddessAtropos ('she who may not be turned aside' i.e. 'the inflexible' or 'the implacable')—one of the threeGreek fates or destinies who would determine the course of a man's life by the weaving of threads that symbolised his birth, the events in his life, and finally his death, with Atropos cutting these threads to mark the last of these.[16][35] The name "bella-donna" comes from the two wordsbella anddonna in theItalian language, meaning 'beautiful' and 'woman', respectively,[32] originating from its usage as a cosmetic[35] to beautify pallid skin[36].
Attractively sweet and cherry-like fruit ofAtropa bella-donna
Deadly nightshade is one of the mosttoxic plants known,[37][38] and its use by mouth increases risk in numerous clinical conditions, such ascomplications of pregnancy,cardiovascular diseases,gastrointestinal disorders, andpsychiatric disorders, among others.[3][4] All parts of the plant containtropane alkaloids;[3][39][40] roots have up to 1.3%,[a] leaves 1.2%, stalks 0.65%, flowers 0.6%, ripe berries 0.7%, and seeds 0.4% tropane alkaloids; leaves reach maximal alkaloid content when the plant is budding and flowering, roots are most poisonous in the end of the plant's vegetation period.[41] The nectar is used by bees to make honey that also contains tropane alkaloids.[42] The berries pose the greatest danger to children because they look attractive and have a somewhat sweet taste.[33][43][44] The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part, though this can vary from one specimen to another.[33][39]
Atropa bella-donna is also toxic to many domestic animals, causingnarcosis andparalysis.[50] However, cattle andrabbits eat the plant seemingly without suffering harmful effects.[47] In humans, its anticholinergic properties will cause the disruption of cognitive capacities, such as memory and learning.[45]
Due to its toxicity, it is advised to not handle the plant without the use of gloves. It is also cautioned to not eat the plant. Even in extremely small doses, when consumed, the toxicity can lead to death. In addition to this, Atropa has been known to have negative psychological effects on those that come into contact with it. Alongside the side effects of insomnia, local paralysis, and dizziness, are the interchanging states of mind swinging from excitement to absolute rabidness.[51]
Cultivation is legal in Europe, Pakistan, North America, and Brazil.[41] Belladonna leaves and roots can be bought with a medical prescription in pharmacies throughout Germany.[52] In the United States, drugs containingtropane alkaloids such as atropine areprescription-only, and the FDA regards anyover-the-counter products claiming efficacy and safety as an anticholinergic drug to be illegal.[53]
The common namebelladonna originates from its historic use by women, asbella donna isItalian for "beautiful woman". It has been widely claimed that drops prepared from the plant were used todilate women'spupils, an effect considered to be attractive and seductive.[54][55][15] However, as notedabove, this appears to conflate use of the plant to aid complexion with a later association with dilation of the pupils. Belladonna drops act as amuscarinic antagonist, blocking receptors in the muscles of the eye that constrict pupil size.[56] Belladonna is currently rarely used cosmetically, as it carries theadverse effects of causing minor visual distortions, inability to focus on near objects, and increased heart rate. Prolonged usage was reputed to causeblindness.[57]
In the United States, belladonna is marketed as adietary supplement, typically as anatropine ingredient in over-the-countercold medicine products.[37][53] Although such cold medicine products are probably safe for oral use at typical atropine dosages (0.2 milligram), there is inadequate scientific evidence to assure their effectiveness.[53] ByFDA guidelines for supplements, there are no regulated manufacturing standards for cold medicines containing atropine, with some belladona supplements found to contain contaminants.[37]
Scientific evidence to recommend the use ofA. bella-donna in its natural form for any condition is insufficient,[3][4][37] although some of its components, in particularl-atropine, which was purified from belladonna in the 1830s, have accepted medical uses.[47]Donnatal is aprescriptionpharmaceutical, that combines natural belladonna alkaloids in a specific, fixed ratio with phenobarbital to provide peripheralanticholinergic orantispasmodic action and mild sedation.[58] Donnatal contains 0.0194 mg of atropine.[58] According to the FDA and Donnatallabeling, it ispossibly effective for use as adjunctive therapy in the treatment ofirritable bowel syndrome (irritable colon, spastic colon, mucous colitis) and acuteenterocolitis.[58][59] Donnatal is not approved by the FDA as being either safe or effective.[58] According to the FDA, Donnatal use has significant risks: it can cause harm to a fetus if administered to a pregnant woman, can lead to heat prostration if used in hot climates, may cause constipation, and may produce drowsiness or blurred vision.[58]
Belladonna has been used inherbal medicine for centuries as a pain reliever, muscle relaxer, and anti-inflammatory, and to treat menstrual problems, peptic ulcer disease, histaminic reaction, and motion sickness.[3][4][61][62][15]
At least one 19th-centuryeclectic medicine journal explained how to prepare a belladonna tincture for direct administration.[63] In homeopathic practices, belladonna was prescribed by German physicianSamuel Hahnemann as atopical medication forinflammation and pain diluted to such an extent that none of the plant was actually present in the preparation.[3] In the form ofDoktor Koster's Antigaspills, belladonna was a homeopathic medication forupset stomach and excessiveflatulence, again with no actual belladonna present in the medication.[64] There is insufficient scientific evidence justifying the use of belladonna for these or any other clinical disorders.[3]
In 2010 and 2016, the USFood and Drug Administration warned consumers against the use of homeopathicteething tablets andgels containing belladonna as used for infants and children, stating that the products may betoxic, causing "seizures, difficulty breathing, lethargy, excessive sleepiness, muscle weakness, skin flushing, constipation, difficulty urinating, or agitation" especially for the lower potencies which are, counterintuitively, the ones that are more likely to include belladonna since they are less diluted.[65][66]
Atropa bella-donna and related plants, such asDatura stramonium (commonly known as thornapple or jimson weed), have occasionally been used asrecreational drugs because of the vividhallucinations and delirium they produce.[67] These hallucinations are most commonly described as very unpleasant, and recreational use is considered extremely dangerous because of the high risk of unintentional fataloverdose.[68][69][70][71][15] The main psychoactive ingredients are the alkaloids scopolamine and, to a lesser extent, hyoscyamine.[72] The effects of atropine on the central nervous system include memory disruption, which may lead to severe confusion.[73] The major effects of belladonna consumption last for three to four hours; visual hallucinations can last for three to four days, and some negative aftereffects are preserved for several days.[41]
The Scots used it during a truce to poison the troops of the invadingHarold Harefoot, King of England, to the point that the English troops were unable to stand their ground and had to retreat to their ships.[35][15]
Medical historians also suspect thatSolomon Northup, a free black man who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1841, was poisoned using a combination ofAtropa bella-donna andlaudanum.[76]
In the past, witches were believed to use a mixture of belladonna,opium poppy and other plants, typically poisonous (such asmonkshood andhemlock), inflying ointment, which they allegedly applied to help them fly to gatherings with other witches or to experience bacchanalian carousal.[77][15]Carlo Ginzburg and others have argued that flying ointments were preparations meant to encourage hallucinatory dreaming; a possible explanation for the inclusion of belladonna and opium poppy in flying ointments concerns the known antagonism between tropane alkaloids of belladonna (scopolamine) and opiate alkaloids in the opium poppy,Papaver somniferum (to be specific,morphine), which produces a dream-like waking state (hypnagogia) orpotentiated dreams while the user is asleep. This antagonism was known in folk medicine and discussed intraditional medicine formularies.[78][79] Belladonna is also notable for the unpredictability of its toxic effects.[80][81]
Among the ancient folk traditions of theRomanian (Moldavian) /Ukrainian region ofBukovina in theCarpathians is the ritual for a Bukovinian girl to enhance her attractiveness by making an offering to deadly nightshade. She entered the fields on a Sunday inShrovetide, clad in herSunday best, accompanied by her mother and bringing a bag ofbread, salt, andbrandy. She would dig up a deadly nightshade root and leave the three offerings in its place. As she returned home, she carried the root on the top of her head. On the way both to and from home, she avoided all quarrels and arguments. If asked by anyone on the way back what she was taking home, she would not divulge the truth or thespell would break.[82]
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^According to the historianTacitus, Livia was rumored to have squeezed the juice of the berries into a plate of figs which she fed to Augustus: Tacitus,Annals 1.5. See also John Emsley,Molecules of Murder: Criminal Molecules and Classic Cases, ch. 3.6, "History of Atropine as a poison".
^"Heinrich Friedrich Georg Mein".ostfriesischelandschaft.de (in German). Archived from the original on 2013-05-11. Retrieved2019-10-20.
^Heinrich Friedrich Georg Mein (1833). "Ueber die Darstellung des Atropins in weissen Kristallen" [On the preparation of atropine as white crystals].Annalen der Pharmacie (in German). Vol. 6 (1 ed.). pp. 67–72.Archived from the original on 2023-01-12. Retrieved2020-01-15.
^Atropine was also independently isolated in 1833 by Geiger and Hesse:
Geiger; Hesse (1833). "Darstellung des Atropins" [Preparation of atropine].Annalen der Pharmacie (in German). Vol. 5. pp. 43–81.Archived from the original on 2023-01-12. Retrieved2020-01-15.
Geiger; Hesse (1833). "Fortgesetzte Versuche über Atropin" [Continued experiments on atropine].Annalen der Pharmacie (in German). Vol. 6. pp. 44–65.Archived from the original on 2023-01-12. Retrieved2020-01-15.
^Kay QON (2008). Marshall, C.; Grace, J. (eds.). "Edible fruits in a cool climate: the evolution and ecology of endozoochory in the European flora".Fruit and Seed Production: Aspects of Development, Environmental Physiology and Ecology (Society for Experimental Biology Seminar Series). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 240.ISBN978-0-521-05045-6.
^Hylander, N. (1971). "Prima loca plantarum vascularium Sueciae. Första litteraturuppgift för Sveriges vildväxande kärlväxter jämte uppgifter om första svenska fynd. Förvildade eller i senare tid inkomna växter".Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift.64: 332.
^"Solanaceae Atropa bella-donna L."Plant Name Details.IPNI. 2003-07-02.Archived from the original on 2008-06-07. Retrieved2008-03-01.SolanaceaeAtropa bella-donna L.Species Plantarum 2 1753 "Habitat in Austriae, Angliae montibus sylvosis."
^abcRaetsch, Ch. (2005).The encyclopedia of psychoactive plants: ethnopharmacology and its applications. US: Park Street Press. pp. 80–85.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^Hazlinsky, B. (1956). "Poisonous honey from deadly nightshade".Zeitschrift für Bienenforschung (3):93–96.
^"Poisonous Vascular Plants".cals.ncsu.edu. North Carolina State University Department of Plant Biology. 2000. Archived fromthe original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved2008-07-07.
^Dewitt MS, Swain R, Gibson LB (1997). "The dangers of jimson weed and its abuse by teenagers in the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia".West Virginia Medical Journal.93 (4):182–5.PMID9274142.
^Cummins BM, Obetz SW, Wilson MR (June 1968). "Belladonna poisoning as a facet of pschyodelia".JAMA.204 (11): 1011.doi:10.1001/jama.204.11.1011.PMID5694682.
^Harner, Michael J. (1973).Hallucinogens and Shamanism. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 123–150.ISBN0-19-501649-1.
^Schenk, GustavDas Buch der Gifte translated by Michael Bullock asThe Book of Poisons pub. Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1956 page 28, quoting Hovorka, Oskar von and Kronfeld, Adolf :Vergleichende Volksmedizin Zweiter Band. Eine Darstellung volksmedizinische Sitten und Gebräuche, Anschauungen und Heilfaktoren des Aberglaubens und der Zaubermedizin [Translation :Comparative Folk Medicine, a study in two volumes: an account of the ethnomedical practices, habits of thought and healing practices to be found in Superstition and Magical Medicine] 2 vols., pub. Strecker und Schröder Stuttgart 1908-9
"Compounds in deadly nightshade".Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. Beltsville, Maryland: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory; USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Archived fromthe original on 2004-11-10. Retrieved2005-07-28.
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