Atlanticism, also known asTransatlanticism[1] orNorth Atlanticism, is the ideology which advocates a close alliance between nations inNorthern America (theUnited States andCanada) and inEurope onpolitical,economic, anddefense issues. The term derives from theNorth Atlantic Ocean, which is bordered byNorth America and Europe. It is a geopolitical ideology in the same regard asEurasianism or Gulfism.[2]
The term can be used in a more specific way to refer to support for North Atlantic military alliances against theSoviet Union,[3] or in a more expansive way to imply broader cooperation, perceived deeply shared values, a merging of diplomatic cultures,[4] as well as a sense of community and some degree of integration between North America and Europe. In practice, the philosophy of Atlanticism encourages active North American, particularly American, engagement in Europe and close cooperation between states on both sides of the ocean. Atlanticism manifested itself most strongly during theSecond World War and in its aftermath, theCold War, through the establishment of various Euro-Atlantic institutions, most importantlyNATO and theMarshall Plan, with the purpose being to maintain or increase the security and prosperity of the participating countries during theCold War and protectliberal democracy.
Atlanticism varies in strength from region to region and from country to country based on a variety of historical and cultural factors. It is often considered to be particularly strong inEastern Europe,Central Europe,Ireland and the United Kingdom (linked to theSpecial Relationship). Politically, it has tended to be associated most heavily and enthusiastically but not exclusively withclassical liberals or thepolitical right in Europe. Atlanticism often implies an affinity for U.S. political or social culture, or affinity for Europe in North America, as well as the historical bonds between the two continents.
There is some tension between Atlanticism andcontinentalism on both sides of the Atlantic, with some people emphasising increased regional cooperation or integration over trans-Atlantic cooperation.[5] The relationship between Atlanticism andNorth American orEuropean integrations is complex, and they are not seen in direct opposition to one another by many commentators.[6]Internationalism is the foreign policy belief combining both Atlanticism and continentalism.[6]
Prior to the World Wars, western European countries were generally preoccupied with continental concerns and creatingcolonial empires in Africa and Asia, and not relations with North America. Likewise, the United States was busy with domestic issues and interventions in Latin America, but had little interest in European affairs, and Canada, despite gaining self-governingdominion status throughConfederation in 1867, had yet to exercise full foreign policy independence as a part of theBritish Empire.
FollowingWorld War I, New York lawyerPaul D. Cravath was a noted leader in establishing Atlanticism in the United States. Cravath had become devoted to international affairs during the war, and was later a co-founder and director of theCouncil on Foreign Relations.[7] In the aftermath of World War I, while theUS Senate was discussing whether or not to ratify theTreaty of Versailles (it ultimately did not), someCongressionalRepublicans expressed their support for a legally binding US alliance with Britain and France as an alternative to theLeague of Nations's and especiallyArticle X's open-ended commitments; however,US PresidentWoodrow Wilson never seriously explored their offer, instead preferring to focus on his (ultimately unsuccessful) fight to secure US entry into the League of Nations.[8]
.jpg)
The experience of having American and Canadian troops fighting with British, French, and other Europeans in Europe during the World Wars fundamentally changed this situation. Though the U.S. (and to some extent Canada) adopted a moreisolationist position between the wars, by the time of theNormandy landings the Allies were well integrated on all policies. TheAtlantic Charter of 1941 declared by U.S. PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill established the goals of the Allies for the post-war world, and was later adopted by all the Western allies. Following the Second World War, the Western European countries were anxious to convince the U.S. to remain engaged in European affairs to deter any possible aggression by the Soviet Union. This led to the 1949North Atlantic Treaty which established theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization, the main institutional consequence of Atlanticism, which binds all members to defend the others, and led to the long-term garrisoning of American and Canadian troops in Western Europe.
.jpg)
.jpg)
After the end of theCold War, the relationship between the United States and Europe changed fundamentally, and made the sides less interested in each other. Without the threat of the Soviet Union dominating Europe, the continent became much less of a military priority for the U.S., and likewise, Europe no longer felt as much need for military protection from the U.S. As a result, the relationship lost much of its strategic importance.[9]
However, the new democracies of the formerWarsaw Pact, and parts of the fragments of the fracturedYugoslavia, took a different view, eagerly embracing Atlanticism, as a bulwark against their continued fear of the Soviet Union's key now-separate great power fragment:Russia.[10][11]
Atlanticism has undergone significant changes in the 21st century in light ofterrorism and theIraq War, the net effect being a renewed questioning of the idea itself and a new insight that the security of the respective countries may require alliance action outside the North Atlantic territory. After theSeptember 11, 2001, attacks, NATO for the first time invokedArticle 5,[12] which states that any attack on a member state will be considered an attack against the entire group of members. Planes of NATO's multi-nationalAWACS unit patrolled the U.S. skies[13] and European countries deployed personnel and equipment.[14] However, the Iraq War caused fissures within NATO and the sharp difference of opinion between the U.S.-led backers of the invasion and opponents strained the alliance. Some commentators, such asRobert Kagan andIvo Daalder questioned whether Europe and the United States had diverged to such a degree that their alliance was no longer relevant.[15][16] Later, in 2018, Kagan said that "we actually need the United States to be working actively to support and strengthen Europe".[17]
The importance of NATO was reaffirmed duringBarack Obama'sadministration,[18] though some called him relatively non-Atlanticist compared to predecessors.[19] As part of theObama Doctrine, Washington supportedmultilateralism with allies in Europe.[20] Obama also enforcedsanctions on Russia with European (and Pacific) allies afterRussia's first invasion of Ukraine in Crimea.[21] After his presidency, Obama also stressed the Atlantic alliance's importance during theTrump administration, indirectly opposing Trump in the matter.[18]
During the Trump years, tensions rose within NATO, as a result ofdemocratic backsliding inHungary andTurkey, and Trump's comments against NATO members and the alliance.[22] Robert Kagan echoed common criticisms that Trump undermined the alliance.[17] Despite this, NATO gained two new member countries (Montenegro andNorth Macedonia) during that time.[23] The importance of NATO in Europe increased due to the continuing threat of the Russian military and intelligence apparatus and the uncertainty of Russian actions informer Soviet Union countries,[19][22] and various threats in the Middle East.[22]German-Russian economic relations became an issue in the Atlantic relationship due toNord Stream 2,[24] among other disagreements such as trade disputes between theUnited States and the European Union.[25]
AfterBiden took office, he emphasizedmultilateralism and the importance of international alliances, making the restoration and strengthening of the Atlantic alliance a key priority.[26][27] As theBiden administration began, top officials of theEuropean Union expressed optimism about the Atlantic relationship.[28] Following the February 2022Russian invasion of Ukraine, journalists noted that the Russian aggression led to a united political response from the European Union,[29][30] making the defensive relevance of the Atlantic alliance more widely known, and increasing the popularity of NATO accession in countries like Sweden and Finland.[31][32][33] Finland joined NATO on 4 April 2023 and Sweden on 7 March 2024.[34][35]
Atlanticism is a belief in the necessity of cooperation betweenNorth America andEurope. The term can imply a belief that the bilateral relationship between Europe and the United States is important above all others, including intra-European cooperation, especially when it comes to security issues.[36] The term can also be used "as a shorthand for the transatlantic security architecture."[36]
Supranational integration of the North Atlantic area had emerged as a focus of thinking among intellectuals on both sides of the Atlantic already in the late 19th century.[37] Although it was not known as Atlanticism at the time (the term was coined in 1950), they developed an approach couplingsoft andhard power which would to some extent integrate the two sides of the Atlantic. The idea of an attractive "nucleus" union was the greatest soft power element; the empirical fact of the hegemonic global strength such a union would hold was the hard power element. This approach was eventually implemented to a certain degree in the form of NATO, theG7 grouping and other Atlanticist institutions.
In the long debate between Atlanticism and its critics in the 20th century, the main argument was whether deep and formal Atlantic integration would serve to attract those still outside to seek to join, as Atlanticists argued, or alienate the rest of the world and drive them into opposite alliances.[37] The Atlanticist perspective that informed the scheme of relations between the United States and the Western European countries after the end of World War Two was informed by political expedience and a strongcivilizational bond.[38]Realists,neutralists, andpacifists,nationalists andinternationalists tended to believe it would do the latter, citing theWarsaw Pact as the proof of their views and treating it as the inevitablerealpolitik counterpart of NATO.[37]
Broadly speaking, Atlanticism is particularly strong in theUnited Kingdom[36] (linked to theSpecial Relationship) and eastern and central Europe (i.e. the area between Germany and Russia).[39] There are numerous reasons for its strength in Eastern Europe: primarily the role of the United States in bringing political freedom there after the First World War (Wilson's Fourteen Points), the major role of the U.S. during the Cold War (culminating in the geopolitical defeat of the Soviet empire and its withdrawal from the region), its relative enthusiasm for bringing the countries of the region into Atlanticist institutions such as NATO, and a suspicion of the intentions of the major Western European powers.[39] Some commentators see countries such asPoland and the United Kingdom among those who generally hold strong Atlanticist views, while seeing countries such asGermany andFrance tending to promote continental views and a strongEuropean Union.[weasel words][5][6][40]
In the early 21st century, Atlanticism has tended to be slightly stronger on the political right in Europe (although many variations do exist from country to country), but on the political center-left in the United States. The partisan division should not be overstated, but it exists and has grown since the end of the Cold War.[41]
While trans-Atlantic trade and political ties have remained mostly strong throughout the Cold War and beyond, the larger trend has beencontinentalisteconomic integration with theEuropean Economic Area and theNorth American Free Trade Agreement notably dividing the Atlantic region into two rivaltrade blocs. However, many political actors and commentators do not see the two processes as being necessarily opposed to one another,[42] in fact some commentators believe regional integration can reinforce Atlanticism.[3] Article 2 of the North Atlantic Treaty, added byCanada, also attempted to bind the nations together on economic and political fronts.[43][44]
TheNorth Atlantic Council is the premier, governmental forum for discussion and decision-making in an Atlanticist context. Other organizations that can be considered Atlanticist in origin:[37]
TheWorld Bank andInternational Monetary Fund are also considered Atlanticist. Under a tacit agreement, the former is led by an American and the latter European.[45]
Well-known Atlanticists include former U.S. PresidentsFranklin D. Roosevelt,Harry Truman, andRonald Reagan; U.K. Prime MinistersWinston Churchill,Margaret Thatcher,Tony Blair, andGordon Brown;[46] former U.S. Secretary of StateDean Acheson; former Assistant Secretary of War and perennial presidential advisorJohn J. McCloy; former U.S. National Security AdvisorZbigniew Brzezinski;[47] former NATO Secretaries-GeneralJavier Solana[48] andJoseph Luns;[49] andCouncil on Foreign Relations co-founderPaul D. Cravath.[7]