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Map of the Atlantic Forestecoregions as delineated by theWWF. The yellow line approximately encloses the forest's distribution. (Satellite image fromNASA)
It was the first environment that the Portuguese colonists encountered over 500 years ago, when it was thought to have had an area of 1,000,000–1,500,000 km2 (390,000–580,000 mi2), and stretching an unknown distance inland, making it, back then, the second largest rainforest on the planet, only behind theAmazon rainforest.[2] Over 85% of the original area has beendeforested, threatening manyplant andanimal species withextinction.[3][4][5]
The Atlantic Forest region includes forests of several variations:
Restinga is a forest type that grows on stabilized coastal dunes. Restinga forests are generally closedcanopy short forests with tree density. Open restinga is an open,savanna-like formation with scattered clumps of small trees and shrubs and an extensive layer of herbs, grasses, andsedges.[6][page needed]
Tabuleiro forests are found over very moist clay soils and Tabuleiro Savannas occur over faster-draining sand soils.[6] These are humid areas that rely on water vapor from the ocean.[7]
Further inland are theAtlantic dry forests, which form a transition between the aridCaatinga to the northeast and theCerrado savannas to the east. These forests are lower in stature; more open, with high abundance ofdeciduous trees and lower diversity when compared to tropical moist forests. These forests have between 700 and 1600 mm of precipitation annually with a distinct dry season. This includes Deciduous andSeasonal semideciduous forest each with their own lowland and montane regions.[6][7]
The Mussununga forests occur in southernBahia and northernEspírito Santo states. The Mussununga ecosystem ranges fromgrasslands to woodlands associated with sandyspodosols. The wordMussununga is AmerindianTupi-Guarani meaning soft and wet white sand.[8]
The Atlantic Forest is unusual in that it extends as a truetropical rain forest to latitudes as far as 28°S. This is because thetrade winds produce precipitation throughout the southern winter. In fact, the northern Zona da Mata of northeastern Brazil receives much more rainfall between May and August than during the southern summer.The geographic range of Atlantic Forest vary depending on author or institution that published them. Information on four most important boundaries as well as their union and intersection was reviewed in 2018.[9]
TheIguazu Falls are located south of the Atlantic Forest.
The Atlantic Forest mainly covers regions of eastern Brazil (92% of the total area), but also reaches eastern Paraguay (6%) and northeastern Argentina (2%).[10]
The Atlantic Forest has undergone great changes across the last twoepochs. Human interaction and environmental changes have been major factors in the ecological history of the forest region.[11]
During glacial periods in thePleistocene, the Atlantic Forest is known to have shrunk to extremely small fragmented refugia in highly sheltered gullies, being separated by areas of dry forest or semi-deserts known as caatingas.[7] Humans first interacted with the Atlantic Forest 18,000 years ago during the Late Pleistocene.[12] The Atlantic Forest region was very different in the Pleistocene than today. Vegetation ranged from a few rain-heavy forests to an abundance of dry open grasslands and forests.[13]
Early human hunting likely resulted in the first mass extinctions of large mammals in the Atlantic Forest region. Indigenous groups in theHolocene usedslash-and-burn agriculture which transformed biological corridors into food resources. Changes in landscape and faunal demographics contributed to greater ecological changes in the Holocene.[14] Ecological changes in this era were signified by the increase in dense rainforests.
Unlikerefugia for equatorial rainforests, the refuges for the Atlantic Forest have never been the product of detailed identification.[15]
By the time of European colonization circa 1500 CE, the Atlantic Forest stretched approximately 1,300,000 km2 (500,000 sq mi).[16] The regions first encountered by Europeans were not pristine landscape. Researchers estimate that Indigenous land management shaped 60–80% of the forest landscape by the time of European contact.[17] Portuguese colonists exploited Indigenous labor and knowledge to extractPaubrasilia echinata for the red dye the trunk of the plant could produce.[18] Portuguese sugar plantations,engenho, had the most impact on the Atlantic Forest region in colonial times.[18] Colonists needed forests cleared to both hold sugar plantations and to feed mill furnances for sugar conversion.[19] Overtime, these interactions shaped the Atlantic Forest region in a manner that had not occurred under Indigenous land management.
The Atlantic Forest has become fragmented since early colonial interactions. Forest fragmentation continues to impact the Atlantic Forest region andcontemporary conservation efforts.[20]
The threatened existence of thegolden lion tamarin sparked global interest in the Atlantic Forest in 1970.[21]
Golden lion tamarin in the Primate, Cat, and Aquatics building at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo.
Despite having only 28% of native vegetation cover remaining,[22] the Atlantic Forest remains extraordinarily lush inbiodiversity andendemic species, many of which are threatened withextinction.[23] Approximately 40 percent of itsvascular plants and up to 60 percent of itsvertebrates are endemic species, meaning they are found nowhere else in the world.[24] The official threatened species list of Brazil contains over 140 terrestrial mammal species found in Atlantic Forest. In Paraguay the Atlantic Forest has been heavily impacted in recent years.[25] In Paraguay there are 35 species listed as threatened, and 22 species are listed as threatened in the interior portion of the Atlantic Forest of Argentina. Nearly 250 species ofamphibians, birds, and mammals have become extinct due to the result of human activity in the past 400 years. Over 11,000 species of plants and animals are considered threatened today in the Atlantic Forest.[7] Over 52% of the tree species and 92% of the amphibians are endemic to this area. The forest harbors around 20,000 species of plants, with almost 450 tree species being found in just one hectare in some locations.[26]
The Atlantic Forest is one of the best studied tropical ecosystems. For example, over 3000 tree species, 98 bat species, 94 large or medium-sized mammal species, over 2000 epiphyte species, 26 primate species, 528 amphibian species, 124 small mammal species, and over 800 bird species have been recorded in the Atlantic Forest.[27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]
New species are continually being found in the Atlantic Forest. In fact, between 1990 and 2006 over a thousand newflowering plants were discovered.[citation needed] Furthermore, in 1990 researchers re-discovered a small population of the black-faced lion tamarin (Leontopithecus caissara), previously thought to have been extinct.[35] In 1991, the butterflyActinote zikani was rediscovered in southern Brazil, after being declared extinct ten years earlier.[36] A new species of blonde capuchin (Cebus queirozi), named for its distinguishing bright blonde hair, was discovered in northeastern Brazil at the Pernambuco Endemism Center in 2006.[37] A species of endangered three-toed sloth, named the maned sloth (Bradypus torquatus) because of its long hair, is endemic to the Atlantic Forest.[38] Hylid tree frogDendropsophus branneri is also endemic to the Atlantic Forest.[39]
Atlantic Forest fragmentationDeforestation of Atlantic Forest inRio de Janeiro
The incorporation of modern human societies and their needs for forest resources has greatly reduced the size of the Atlantic Forest, which has resulted in species impoverishment.[40] Almost 88% of the original forest habitat has been lost and replaced by human-modified landscapes includingpastures,croplands, andurban areas. Thisdeforestation continues at an annual rate of 0.5% and up to 2.9% in urban areas.
Pasture: Even more common than using land for agriculture is theconversion of forest to cattle pastures.[41] This is commonly done byslash and burn, which increases the likelihood of additional forest loss to human-induced wildfires.
Hunting: Species in a fragmented forest are more susceptible to decline inpopulation size because they are in a confined area that is more accessible to hunters. Larger animals make up the highest percentage ofbiomass. These animals are also the most rewarding to hunters and are heavilyhunted in accessible fragments. This results in a change in species interactions such asseed dispersal and competition for resources.
Logging:Logging removes 10 to 80% of the canopy cover of a forest, making that habitat more susceptible to natural elements such as wind and sunlight. This causes an increase in forest heating anddesiccation.[42] Large amounts of organic litter and debris build up, which results in an increase in forest vulnerability tofires. Additionally, logging roads create accessibility for humans, thereby increasing the rate of human land disturbance and decreasing the amount of natural forest.[42]
Fire: Human activity such as logging causes an increase in debris alongforest floors that makes the Atlantic Forest more susceptible to fires. This is a forest type that is not accustomed to regular fire activity, so human-induced fires dramatically affect the forest understory because plants do not have fire adaptations. As a result, the forest becomes even more vulnerable to secondary fires, which are far more destructive and kill many more species including large trees.[42]
Habitat fragmentation leads to a cascade of alterations of the original forest landscape.[24] For example, the extent of human disturbances, includinghabitat destruction, in the Atlantic Forest has led to an extinction crisis.[43] The endemic species in this region are especially vulnerable to extinction due to fragmentation because of their small geographic ranges and low occurrence.[44] In a study of the Atlantic Forest fragments, community level biomass was reduced to 60% in plots less than 25 hectares.[45] Key ecological processes such asseed dispersal,gene flow, colonization and other processes are disturbed by fragmentation.[45] With many key vertebrate seed dispersers going extinct, it is predicted that many regional, fruit-bearing tree species in the Atlantic forest will become extinct due to failure of seedling recruitment and recolonisation.[41] With all these species already threatened, it is predicted that with the persistence of current deforestation rates the Atlantic forest will see continued extinction of species.[43]
Due to the Atlantic Forest's vast diversity of endemic plants and animals as well as the fragmentation affecting these species, many groups and organizations are working to restore this uniqueecosystem.Non-governmental organizations (NGO) are huge benefactors in Brazil, providing funding as well as professional help to the Atlantic Forest due to theBrazilian Environmental Movement.[46] One organization, calledBirdLife International, uses its research to preserve the area's bird biodiversity and teach people about sustainable natural resource use.[46]
Some organizations receive grants from theCritical Ecosystem Partnership Fund if they abide by its rules.[46] These include the Species Protection Program, the Program for Supporting Private Natural Heritage Reserves and the Institutional Strengthening Program.
Another strategy being implemented to maintain biodiversity within the Atlantic Forest is creatingwildlife corridors. TheWorld Bank is donating $44 million to create a corridor, which will be known as theCentral Biodiversity Corridor, in the Atlantic Forest and one in the Amazon.[46] TheBrazilian Development Bank has been financing, with non-reimbursable loans, 16 to 18 ecosystem restoration projects totaling 3,500 hectares and costing approximately $22 million under the so-called Iniciativa BNDES Mata Atlântica.[47] In order to preserve diversity, thestate of São Paulo has created theRestinga de Bertioga State Park, a 9.3 thousand hectares park which also serves as a wildlife corridor linking the coastal regions to the Serra do Mar mountain range.[48] Some organizations, such as theNature Conservancy, are planning to restore parts of the forest that have been lost and to build corridors that are compatible with the lifestyles of the native people.[49] TheAmazon Institute is active in reforestation efforts in the northeastern state ofPernambuco, Brazil. During 2007, Joao Milanez and Joanne Stanulonis have planted 5,500 new trees in the mountains commencing with Gravata, adding to the precious little ancient forest left.
The Pact for Atlantic Forest Restoration has assembled over 100 businesses, nongovernmental and governmental organizations around the goal of having 15 million hectares of the original ecosystem restored by 2050.[50]
^abcdThomas, William Wayt, and Elizabeth G. Britton. 2008. The Atlantic coastal forest of Northeastern Brazil. Bronx, N.Y.: The New York Botanical Garden Press.ISBN978-0-89327-498-6
^abcdGalindo Leal, Carlos, and Ibsen de Gusmão Câmara. 2003. The Atlantic Forest of South America: biodiversity status, threats, and outlook. Washington: Island Press.
^Marques, Marcia C. M.; Grelle, Carlos E. V., eds. (2021).The Atlantic forest: history, biodiversity, threats and opportunities of the mega-diverse forest. Cham: Springer.ISBN978-3-030-55322-7.
^Marques, Marcia C. M.; Grelle, Carlos E. V., eds. (2021).The Atlantic forest: history, biodiversity, threats and opportunities of the mega-diverse forest. Cham: Springer.ISBN978-3-030-55322-7.
^Marques, Marcia C. M.; Grelle, Carlos E. V., eds. (2021).The Atlantic forest: history, biodiversity, threats and opportunities of the mega-diverse forest. Cham: Springer.ISBN978-3-030-55322-7.
^Solórzano, Alexandro; de Assis Brasil, Lucas Santa Cruz; de Oliveira, Rogério Ribeiro (2021). Marques, Marcia C. M.; Grelle, Carlos E. V. (eds.).The Atlantic forest: history, biodiversity, threats and opportunities of the mega-diverse forest. Cham: Springer. pp. 25–44.ISBN978-3-030-55322-7.
^abSolórzano, Alexandro; de Assis Brasil, Lucas Santa Cruz; de Oliveira, Rogério Ribeiro (2021). Marques, Marcia C. M.; Grelle, Carlos E. V. (eds.).The Atlantic forest: history, biodiversity, threats and opportunities of the mega-diverse forest. Cham: Springer. pp. 25–44.ISBN978-3-030-55322-7.
^Solórzano, Alexandro; de Assis Brasil, Lucas Santa Cruz; de Oliveira, Rogério Ribeiro (2021). Marques, Marcia C. M.; Grelle, Carlos E. V. (eds.).The Atlantic forest: history, biodiversity, threats and opportunities of the mega-diverse forest. Cham: Springer. pp. 25–44.ISBN978-3-030-55322-7.
^Marques, Marcia C. M.; Grelle, Carlos E. V., eds. (2021).The Atlantic forest: history, biodiversity, threats and opportunities of the mega-diverse forest. Cham: Springer.ISBN978-3-030-55322-7.
^abcTabarelli, Marcelo, Antonio Venceslau Aguiar, Milton Cezar Ribeiro, Jean Paul Metzger, and Carlos A. Peres. "Prospects for Biodiversity Conservation in the Atlantic Forest: Lessons from Aging Human-modified Landscapes." Biological Conservation 143.10 (2010): 2328-340.
^de la Sancha, Noé U., Sarah A. Boyle, and Nancy E. McIntyre. "Identifying structural connectivity priorities in eastern Paraguay's fragmented Atlantic Forest." Scientific reports 11, no. 1 (2021): 16129.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95516-3
^Reaka-Kudla, Marjorie L, Don E. Wilson, and Edward O. Wilson. Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press, 1997.
^Pontes, A., A. Malta, and P. Asfora. 2006. A new species of capuchin monkey, genusCebus erxleben (Cebidae, Primates): found at the very brink of extinction in the Pernambuco Endemism Centre. Zootaxa:1-12.
^Cassano, C., M. Kierulff, and A. Chiarello. 2011. The cacao agroforests of the Brazilian Atlantic forest as habitat for the endangered maned slothBradypus torquatus. Mammalian Biology 76:243-250.
^abcLaurance, William F., and Diana C. Useche. "Environmental Synergisms and Extinctions of Tropical Species."Conservation Biology 23.6 (2009): 1427–1437.
^abBrooks, Thomas M., Mittermeier, Russell A., Mittermeier, Cristina G., Da Fonseca, Gustavo A. B., Konstant, William R., Flick, Penny, Pilgrim, John,Oldfield, Sara, Magin, Georgina, Hilton-Taylor, Craig. "Habitat Loss and Extinction in the Hotspots of Biodiversity." Pérdida de Hábitat y Extinciones en Áreas Críticas para la Biodiversidad 16.4 (2002).
^Patterson, B. D. & W. Atmar. "Analyzing species composition in fragments."Bonner Zoologische Monographen 46 (2000): Pp. 9–24.
^abPütz, J. Groeneveld, L.F. Alves, J.P. Metzger, A. Huth. "Fragmentation drives tropical forest fragments to early successional states: A modelling study for Brazilian Atlantic forests."Ecological Modelling, 222. 12 (2011), pp. 1986–1997.
Saporetti-Junior, Amilcar Walter; Schaefer, Carlos Ernesto G. Reynaud; de Souza, Agostinho Lopes; Soares, Michellia Pereira; Araújo, Dorothy Sue Dunn; Meira-Neto, João Augusto Alves (21 September 2011). "Influence of Soil Physical Properties on Plants of the Mussununga Ecosystem, Brazil".Folia Geobotanica.47 (1):29–39.doi:10.1007/s12224-011-9106-9.S2CID17406247.
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