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| Part of theAge of Enlightenment | |
 Theinsurrection of 10 August 1792 during theFrench Revolution | |
| Date | 22 March 1765 – 4 October 1849 |
|---|---|
| Outcome | Industrial Revolution Multiple revolutionary waves Atlantic Revolutions Latin American wars of independence Revolutions of 1820 Revolutions of 1830 Revolutions of 1848 End offeudalism Rise ofRepublicanism |
| Deaths | American Revolution: 37,324+[1] French Revolution: 150,000+[1]Napoleonic Wars: 3,500,000–7,000,000 (seeNapoleonic Wars casualties) Over 3,687,324–7,187,324 casualties (other wars excluded) |
TheAge of Revolution is a period from the late-18th to the mid-19th centuries during which a number of significantrevolutionary movements occurred in most of Europe and theAmericas.[2] The period is noted for the change fromabsolutist monarchies to representative governments with awritten constitution, and the creation ofnation states.
Influenced by the new ideas of theEnlightenment, theAmerican Revolution (1765–1783) is usually considered the starting point of the Age of Revolution. It in turn inspired theFrench Revolution of 1789,[3] which rapidly spread to the rest of Europe through its wars. In 1799,Napoleontook power in France and continued theFrench Revolutionary Wars by conquering most of continental Europe. Although Napoleon imposed on his conquests several modern concepts such asequality before the law, or acivil code, his rigorous military occupation triggered national rebellions, notably inSpain andGermany. After Napoleon's defeat, European great powers forged theHoly Alliance at theCongress of Vienna in 1814–15, in an attempt to prevent future revolutions, and also restored the previous monarchies. Nevertheless, Spain was considerably weakened by the Napoleonic Wars and could not control itsAmerican colonies, almost all of whichproclaimed their independence between 1810 and 1820. Revolution then spread back to southern Europe in 1820, withuprisings inPortugal,Spain,Italy, andGreece. Continental Europe was shaken by two similar revolutionary waves in1830 and1848, also called the Spring of Nations. The democratic demands of the revolutionaries often merged with independence or national unification movements, such as inItaly,Germany,Poland,Hungary, etc. The violent repression of the Spring of Nations marked the end of the era.
The expression was popularized by the British historianEric Hobsbawm in his bookThe Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, published in 1962.[4]
| Atlantic Revolutions | |
|---|---|
| Part of theAge of Revolution | |
 %2c_by_John_Trumbull.jpg) .jpg)  Clockwise from top:
| |
| Date | 22 March 1765 – 4 December 1838 (73 years, 8 months, 1 week and 5 days) |
| Location | |
| Caused by | |
| Resulted in | Multiple revolutions and wars across the Atlantic world, including theAmerican Revolutionary War,French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, and theSpanish American wars of independence |
TheAtlantic Revolutions (19 April 1775 – 4 December 1838) were numerous revolutions in theAtlantic World in the late 18th and early 19th century, which formed a significant portion of theAge of Revolution. Following theAge of Enlightenment, ideas critical ofabsolutist monarchies spread. Arevolutionary wave occurred, with the aim of ending monarchical rule, emphasizing the ideals of theEnlightenment, and spreadingliberalism.
In 1755, early signs of governmental changes occurred with the formation of theCorsican Republic andPontiac's War. The largest of these early revolutions was theAmerican Revolution beginning in 1775, which founded theUnited States.[5] The American Revolution inspired other movements, including theFrench Revolution in 1789, theHaitian Revolution in 1791 and theColombian War of Independence in 1810. These revolutions were based on the equivocation of personal freedom with the right to own property — a concept spread byEdmund Burke — and on the equality of all men, an idea expressed inconstitutions written as a result of these revolutions.
The revolutions took place in both the Americas and Europe, including theUnited States (1775–1783),Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1788–1792), France and French-controlled Europe (1789–1814),Haiti (1791–1804),Ireland (1798) andSpanish America (1810–1825).[6] There were smaller upheavals in Switzerland, Russia, and Brazil. The revolutionaries in these countries knew of each other, and to some degree were inspired by- or emulating each other.[7]
Independence movements in theNew World began with theAmerican Revolution, 1775–1783, in which France, the Netherlands and Spain assisted the new United States of America as it secured independence fromBritain. In the 1790s, theHaitian Revolution broke out. In the 1810's, Colombia became one of the first South American nations to declare independence from the Spanish Empire, triggering theColombian War of Independence. With Spain tied down inEuropean conflicts, the mainlandSpanish colonies secured independence around 1820.[8]
In long-term perspective, the revolutions were mostly successful. They widely spread the ideals ofliberalism,republicanism, the overthrow of aristocracies, kings and established churches. For instance, the Genevan revolutionaries in modern-daySwitzerland were rebelling against the government of noblemen on the Small Council. The revolutionaries confronted them by spreading the ideals of their republic like liberty to the whole world.[10] They emphasized the universal ideals of theEnlightenment, such as the equality of all men, including equality before the law by unbiased courts. The success of these revolutions demonstrated that the modern notion of revolution, that of establishing a radically new government via popular insurgence, could work in practice. Revolutionary movements and ideas were born and have continued to exist since.
The common Atlantic theme breaks down to some extent from reading the works ofEdmund Burke. Burke firstly supported the American colonists in 1774 in "On American Taxation", and took the view that their property and other rights were being infringed by the crown without their consent. In apparent contrast, Burke distinguished and deplored the process of the French revolution inReflections on the Revolution in France (1790), as in this case property, customary and religious rights were being removed summarily by the revolutionaries and not by the crown. In both cases he was followingMontesquieu's theory that the right to own property is an essential element of personal freedom.
The American Revolution, a pivotal event in the broader context of Atlantic revolutions, led to the emergence of the United States as an independent nation. Its ripple effects resonated across the Atlantic, influencing subsequent independence movements and revolutions in Europe and the Americas. For instance, the Haitian Revolution erupted in the 1790s, challenging colonial rule and inspiring aspirations for freedom and equality. Similarly, mainland Spanish colonies secured their independence around 1820 amid the turmoil of theNapoleonic Wars.
In 1781, political tensions arose in theNetherlands when a faction known as the Patriots rose up against the rulingStadtholderWilliam V, a period today known as thePatriottentijd ("Patriot's Time") in Dutch history. The Patriots had largely been inspired through "Aan het Volk van Nederland" ("To the People of the Netherlands"), a pamphlet published anonymously and written by statesmanJoan Derk van der Capellen. In it, van der Capellen not only demanded a change in government, but that the Dutch people should rule themselves.[10] While the Patriot uprising was subdued with foreign aid in 1787, it decidedly paved the way for theformation of theBatavian Republic in 1795, in turn of theFrench Revolutionary War.
These interconnected revolutions, fueled by ideals of liberalism and republicanism, sought to overthrow entrenched aristocracies and establish governments based on the principles of the Enlightenment. The revolutionary fervor underscored the belief in the possibility of creating radically new governments founded on the principles of justice and equality, a sentiment that continues to resonate in modern times. However, the Atlantic theme of revolution faced complexities and nuances, as highlighted in the contrasting views of figures like Edmund Burke, who supported the American colonists' fight against unjust taxation but criticized the French Revolution for its perceived violation of property and religious rights.
Various connecting threads among these varied uprisings include a concern for the "Rights of Man" and freedom of the individual; an idea (often predicated onJohn Locke orJean-Jacques Rousseau) ofpopular sovereignty.Jean Jacques Rousseau along with other philosophers believe that support for equality and liberty in Europe can be done in the small states.[10]Moreover, there were conflicting perspectives about popular sovereignty regarding slavery.Stephen A. Douglas and the Democratic Party promoted popular sovereignty in favor of the expansion of slavery in the U.S.Frederick Douglass believed that if Douglas stood up for women’s rights, the Southern white women would have the right to decide whether to put their black sisters under slavery or not.[11]Other concerns about human rights and freedom include the belief in a "social contract", which in turn was often codified in writtenconstitutions; a certain complex of religious convictions often associated withdeism and characterized by veneration of reason; abhorrence offeudalism and often ofmonarchy itself. The Atlantic Revolutions also had many shared symbols, including the name "Patriot" used by so many revolutionary groups; the slogan of "Liberty"; theliberty cap;Lady Liberty or Marianne; thetree of liberty orliberty pole, and so on.
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. It marked a major turning point in history and almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. This led to a rapid expansion of cities that resulted in social strains and disturbances.[12] For instance, economic grievances associated with this industrialization fed later revolutions such as those that transpired from 1848.[13] New social classes emerged including those that began to reject orthodox politics.[14] This is demonstrated by the rise of the urbanmiddle class, which became a powerful force so that they had to be integrated into the political system.[15] The upheavals also led to old political ideas that were directed against the social arrangements of the preindustrial regime.[13]
TheAmerican Revolution brought about independence for theThirteen Colonies ofBritish America. This was the first European colony to claim independence. It was the birth of the United States of America, ultimately leading to the drafting and ratification of aU.S. Constitution that included a number of original features within a federatedrepublic and a system ofseparation of powers and checks and balances. Those include but are not limited to an elected head of state, property rights, due process rights, and the rights of free speech, the press and religious practice.[16][17][18]
The British historianEric Hobsbawm credits the French Revolution with giving the 19th century its ideology and politics, stating:
France made its revolutions and gave them their ideas, to the point where atricolour of some kind became the emblem of virtually every emerging nation, and European (or indeed world) politics between 1789 and 1917 were largely the struggle for and against the principles of 1789, or the even more incendiary ones of 1793.France provided the vocabulary and the issues ofliberal andradical-democratic politics for most of the world. France provided the first great example, the concept and the vocabulary ofnationalism. France provided the codes of law, the model of scientific and technical organization, themetric system of measurement for most countries. The ideology of the modern world first penetrated the ancient civilizations which had hitherto resisted European ideas through French influence. This was the work of the French Revolution.[4]
The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799 that profoundly affected French and modern history, marking the decline of powerful monarchies and churches and the rise of democracy and nationalism.[19] Popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and aristocracy grew amidst an economic crisis following two expensive wars and years of bad harvests, motivating demands for change. These were couched in terms of Enlightenment ideals and caused the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789.
The precipitating event was that the King went public that the French state was essentially bankrupt, and because of that he convened theÉtats généraux (Estates general) to replenish state coffers. The Estates-General was made up of 3 estates/orders:
The French tax regime was regressive, and traditional noble and bourgeois allies felt shut out.
Centralizing monarchical power, i.e. Royal absolutism, onward from Louis XIII in 1614[20] inward to the royal court in Versailles led to a snowball effect that ended up alienating both nobility and bourgeoisie. There was a tendency to play favorites with the tax regime, especially by exempting nobility from taxation. This led to a feeling of discrimination among the bourgeoisie, which itself was an engine of the Revolution[21]
It was also a question of numbers. The population of nobles versus that of the rest of France wildly disparate: nobles = .4-1.5% out of total population of ca. 28 million. The population of clergy versus the rest of France was even less: about 120,000 clergy total, out of which were 139 powerful and wealthy bishops (.0005% of total pop.); the majority of parish priests were as poor as their parishioners.[22]
These were young men from commoner families who were not sustenance farmers and whose families could afford to send their sons to either study the law or take over the family business. When talking about these young (mainly) lawyers from this segment of society, one is also talking about products of the Enlightenment. As the formerFinancial Times chief foreign affairs columnist and author Ian Davidson puts it:
"French society, like others in much of Western Europe, was undergoing a colossal transformation. The ultra-intellectual Enlightenment of Montesquieu and Voltaire, Bach and Mozart, Isaac Newton and Adam Smith was just the tip of a vast change that was happening throughout society and producing an expanding, educated, literate and ambitious bourgeoisie."[22]
Part of this ambition was to enter a political scene that was always locked behind a door to which only the monarchy, clergy, and nobility had the keys. The durable shift here was that, by the time the Estates general convened, their knowledge of law gave them the tools to enter the political scene.
The Haitian Revolution was a slave rebellion in the French colony ofSaint-Domingue, which culminated in the elimination of slavery there[23] and the eventual founding of theRepublic of Haiti. The Haitian Revolution was the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a state. Furthermore, it is generally considered the most successful slave rebellion ever to have occurred and as a defining moment in the histories of both Europe and the Americas. The rebellion began with a revolt of black African slaves in August 1791.[24]
One-third of French overseas trade and revenue came from Haitian sugar and coffee plantations. During theFrench Revolution the colony was brought under the French Republic's control thanks to the Republican abolition of slavery.Toussaint Louverture, a Black general loyal to France, outmanoeuvred successive French officials and became the de facto rule of Saint-Domingue. However, afterNapoleon became the first consul of France, he sent troops in 1801 to overthrow Louverture's regime and restore slavery. The war was known for atrocities committed by both sides, and extensive guerrilla warfare. French forces defeated Louverture's army and restored French control by early 1802. However, after Louverture was arrested and deported to France, Blacks in Saint-Domingue rebelled again and gradually drove French forces out of the colony, aided by the British. It ended in November 1803 with the French defeat at theBattle of Vertières. Haiti became an independent country on January 1, 1804.[citation needed]
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In 1798, a revolt broke out againstBritish rule in Ireland in the hopes of creating an independent Irish republic. The rebellion was initiated by theSociety of United Irishmen and led byWolfe Tone. The revolt was motivated by a combination of factors, includingIrish nationalism, news of the success of the French Revolution, and resentment at thepenal laws, which discriminated against Catholics and Presbyterians in Ireland. The rebellion failed and led to theActs of Union 1800.[25]
The Serbian Revolution was a national uprising and constitutional change inSerbia that took place between 1804 and 1835, during which the territory evolved from anOttoman province into a rebel territory, aconstitutional monarchy, and finally the modern Serbian state. The first part of the period, from 1804 to 1815, was marked by a violent struggle for independence from theOttoman Empire with three armed uprisings taking place (TheFirst Serbian Uprising,Hadži-Prodan's rebellion and theSecond Serbian Uprising), ending with a ceasefire.[citation needed] During the later period (1815–1835) a peaceful consolidation of political power developed in the increasingly autonomous Serbia, culminating in the recognition of the right to hereditary rule bySerbian princes in 1830 and 1833 and the territorial expansion of the young monarchy. The adoption of the first writtenConstitution in 1835 abolishedfeudalism andserfdom, and made the countrysuzerain. The term "Serbian Revolution" was coined by a German academic historiographer,Leopold von Ranke, in his bookDie Serbische Revolution, published in 1829. These events marked the foundation of the modernPrincipality of Serbia.[citation needed]
Scholars have characterized the Serbian War of Independence and subsequent national liberation as a revolution because the uprisings were started by broad masses of rural Serbian people who were in severe class conflict with the Turkish landowners as a political and economic masters at the same time, similar toGreece in the 1820s.[26]
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Latin America experiencedindependence revolutions in the early 19th century that separated the colonies fromSpain andPortugal, creating new nations. These movements were generally led by the ethnically Spanish but locally bornCreole class; these were often wealthy citizens that held high positions of power but were still poorly respected by the European-born Spaniards. One such Creole wasSimón Bolívar, who led several revolutions throughout South America and helped establishGran Colombia. Another important figure wasJosé de San Martín, who helped create theUnited Provinces of the Río de la Plata and became the first president ofPeru.
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Greece in the early 1800s was under the rule of theOttoman Empire. A series of revolts, starting in 1821, began the conflict. The Ottoman Empire sent in forces to suppress the revolts. By 1827, forces from Russia, Great Britain, and France entered the conflict, helping the Greeks drive the Turkish forces off thePeloponnese Peninsula. The Turks finally recognized Greece as a free nation in May 1832.
The Revolutions of 1820 were a series of revolutionary uprisings inSpain,Italy,Portugal, andGreece. Unlike the wars of 1830, these wars tended to be in the outer regions of Europe.[27]
Arevolutionary wave in Europe which took place in 1830. It included two "romantic nationalist" revolutions, theBelgian Revolution in theUnited Kingdom of the Netherlands and theJuly Revolution inFrance. There also were revolutions inCongress Poland,Italian states,Portugal andSwitzerland. It was followed eighteen years later by another and much stronger wave of revolutions known as theRevolutions of 1848.[28][29]
The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, but within a year, reactionary forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed.
The political impact of the 1848 revolutions was more evident in Austria in comparison to the revolution's effects in countries like Germany. This is attributed to the way the upheavals in Vienna resulted in greater loss of life and gained stronger support from intellectuals, students, and the working class.[30] An account described the German experience as less concerned with national issues, although it succeeded in breaking down class barriers.[30] There was a previously prevalent view that there was only one revolutionary event in Germany but recent scholarship pointed to a fragmented picture of several revolutions happening at the same time.[31]
The 1848 revolutions were also notable because of the increased participation of women. While women rarely participated in revolutionary activities, there were those who performed supportive and auxiliary roles such as the cases of the women's political club inVienna, which demanded revolutionary measures from the Austrian Constituent Assembly, and the Parisian women who protested and proposed their own solutions to social problems, particularly those involving their rights and crafts.[32]
The Eureka Rebellion was a 20-minute shootout between the miners ofBallarat, Victoria, and theBritish Army. After the imposition of Gold Mining Licences, that being that a person had to have one of these to mine gold, and which cost 30 shillings a month to own a license, the miners decided that it was too much. The Ballarat miners started rallies atBakery Hill and burnt their licenses, took an oath under the flag of theSouthern Cross, elected Peter Lalor as their rebellion leader, and built a stockade (a makeshift fort) around the diggings. Eventually, the British troops, led by GovernorCharles Hotham of Ballarat fired upon the stockade. The miners fired back and lasted 20 minutes before their stockade was stormed by British troops. Most of the miners were arrested by the British colonial authorities, and taken to trial. If found guilty, they would hang for high treason. All were eventually acquitted. The Eureka Rebellion is controversially identified with the birth of democracy in Australia and interpreted by many as a political revolt.[33][34][35]
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against the rule of theBritish East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Company's army in the garrison town of Meerut, 40 mi (64 km) northeast ofDelhi (that area is now Old Delhi). It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the rebels' defeat inGwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities to have formally ended until 8 July 1859. Its name is contested, and it is variously described as the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and theFirst War of Independence.
Bulgarian modernnationalism emerged underOttoman rule in the late 18th and early 19th century, under the influence of western ideas such as liberalism and nationalism, which trickled into the country after the French Revolution. In 1869 theInternal Revolutionary Organization was initiated. An autonomousBulgarian Exarchate was established in 1870/1872 for the Bulgarian diocese wherein at least two-thirds of Orthodox Christians were willing to join it. TheApril Uprising of 1876 indirectly resulted in there-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878.
TheParis Commune was a revolutionarysocialist government that controlled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871. It was established by radicalized defectors from theFrench National Guard, which had been mobilized to defend Paris in theFranco-Prussian War (19 July 1870 – 28 January 1871).
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