ܣܘܪ̈ܝܝܐ ܕܣܘܪܝܐ (Syriac) | |
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.jpeg) Assyrian Christian baptism in Syria | |
| Total population | |
| 400,000-877,000 (pre-Syrian civil war)[1][2][3][4][5] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Languages | |
| Turoyo,Sureth andNorth Mesopotamian Arabic | |
| Religion | |
| Syriac Christianity (Syriac Orthodox Church,Assyrian Church of the East,Chaldean Catholic Church,Syriac Catholic Church,Maronite Church)[6] |
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Assyrians in Syria (Syriac:ܣܘܪ̈ܝܝܐ ܕܣܘܪܝܐ,Arabic:الآشوريون في سوريا), also known asSyriacs/Arameans, are anethnic and linguistic minorityindigenous toUpper Mesopotamia, the north-eastern half of Syria. Syrian-Assyrians are people ofAssyrian descent living inSyria, and those in theAssyrian diaspora who are of Syrian-Assyrian heritage.
They live primarily inAl-Hasakah Governorate, with a significant presence inHasakah city and the cities ofQamishli,Malikiyah,Ras al-Ayn, andQahtaniyah, as well as inTell Tamer and nearby villages. Some have migrated toDamascus and other western cities beyond the border of their indigenous Mesopotamia at theEuphrates River.[7][8] They share a common history andethnic identity, rooted in sharedlinguistic,cultural andreligious traditions, withAssyrians in Turkey,Assyrians in Iraq andAssyrians in Iran, as well as with theAssyrian diaspora.[9]
Historically, the relatedArameans ofMaaloula andJubb'adin in Southwestern Syria were sometimes included under the term 'Assyrians', although those two particular Aramean communities in Syria speakWestern Neo-Aramaic, in contrast to theNortheastern Neo-Aramaic spoken by Assyrians proper.
In addition, theAssyrian identity in Syria (as in Iraq) is usually seen as inseparable from being Christian and even adhering to specific churches. In contrast, theAramean identity can also encompass Muslim Arameans, as in the case of the Arameans of Jubb'adin and the pre-Syrian civil war village (now destroyed) ofBakh'a. The inhabitants of both of these villages are overwhelmingly Muslim, although the historical evidence suggests that conversion to Islam happened more recently around the 1700s.
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During theOld Assyrian Empire (2000–1750 BC),Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC) andNeo Assyrian Empire (911–599 BC) much of, and often the entirety of the modern country ofSyria, was under Assyrian rule, which founded in NorthwesternMesopotamia (modern-dayIraq). The northeastern part of the land became an integral part of Assyria proper during the 2nd millennium BC. Thus the presence of originallyAkkadian-speaking and laterEastern Aramaic-speaking Assyrians in the northeastern part of the modern country dates back over 4000 years, where they lived alongside a diverse set of other peoples such asHittites,Hurrians andAmorites throughout the ages. Traces of the long era of Assyrian settlement can be seen at numerous archaeological sites across the region. Important Assyrian cities in the region in ancient times includeTil-Barsip,Carchemish,Guzana,Shubat-Enlil andDur-Katlimmu.
The northeast of modern-day Syria was a part ofAchaemenid Assyria (Athura) which was a geographical area within theAchaemenid Empire inMesopotamia between 546 and 332 BC, thenSeleucid Syria (312-150 BC), when the nameSyria which was originally a 9th-century BCIndo-European corruption ofAssyria and had hitherto referred only toAssyria itself, also became applied to a region long known asAramea/Eber Nari. During theParthian Empire (150 BC-224 AD) and earlySassanid Empire (224 -650 AD) (when the land was renamedAssuristan) a number ofNeo-Assyrian kingdoms arose, and parts of northeast Syria became a part of the Neo-Assyrian state ofOsroene until the mid-3rd century AD.Christianity became established amongst the Assyrians as early as the 1st century AD, and the region ofAthura became the birthplace ofEastern Christianity andSyriac literature, with theAssyrian Church of the East andSyriac Orthodox Church being founded in the region.
After theArabIslamic Conquest of the mid-7th century AD, Assyria/Athura/Assuristan was dissolved as a geo-political entity, and the region gradually saw an influx ofMuslimArab,Turkic andIranic peoples. However, settlement in the northeastern areas often proved unsustainable in the long-term, leading to numerous episodes of population exodus. In addition to experiencing such destabilising factors such as climate shifts andover-cultivation of land, the area was also vulnerable to attack from nomadic peoples. Following theMongol andTimurid invasions and subsequent massacre ofAssyrians, it was left with only a scant permanent population. In the centuries that followed, a number of nomadic and semi-nomadicArabic- andKurdish-speaking tribes wandered the area with their livestock into the 20th century, when most of them were forced to settle by governmental policies.
When theOttoman Empire conductedethnic cleansing against its Christian populations, Kurds were responsible for most of the atrocities against Assyrians.[10][11][better source needed] At the onset of the 20th century, Kurdish tribes cooperated with the Ottoman authorities in the genocides againstArmenian andAssyrian Christians inUpper Mesopotamia.[12] Many Assyrians fromHakkari settled in Syria after they were displaced and driven out byOttoman Turks in the early 20th century.[13] During the 1930s and 1940s, many Assyrians resettled in northeastern Syrian villages, such asTel Tamer,Al-Qahtaniyah,Al Darbasiyah,Al-Malikiyah,Qamishli and a few other small towns inAl-Hasakah Governorate.[14]
Most of the current population ofAssyrians in Hasakah dates back to theFrench Mandate of Syria, when refugees from the now-Turkish areas north of present-day Syria (such asTur Abdin) were settled together with displacedArmenians who had survived theAssyrian genocide andArmenian genocide in the area by the authorities as part of an effort to promote economic development. Given preferential treatment on the basis of theirChristian religion by the French, they soon formed most of the new urban elite in the region. An additional influx of Eastern Assyrians began to resettle along theKhabur River in 1933 after the massacres of Assyrians in newly independent Iraq (seeSimele massacre) forced the flight. These were refugees twice over—originally from the highlands ofHakkari, they had initially sought refuge amongst other Assyrians in Iraq in the face of theAssyrian genocide before the attacks.[15]
In 1936, religious and political leaders—mainly from the Assyrian and Armenian Christian and Kurdish communities, with a few Arab groups as well—pressured the French authorities to give autonomous status to the SyrianAl-Jazira province (nowadays theAl Hasakah) for its mixed-ethnic population, like in theSanjak of Alexandretta, theAlawite State, orJabal al-Druze. The push for autonomy was marked by civil strife and inter-communal violence in the province, and angry hostility on the part of the mainly Arab nationalists pushing for outright independence for Syria. Long having viewed the settlement of Assyrians and Armenians in the country as the product of French colonialism, they were further incensed by the arrival of additional Assyrian refugees on the Khabur, and mobilized support from many Arab tribes and some Kurdish groups to counter the autonomists. The French forcibly cracked down on both sides as they grew increasingly violent, and the movement for autonomy soon failed. Later on, in 1957, theAssyrian Democratic Organization was set up inSyria by center-left intellectuals.[16]
Though officially and incorrectly designated asArabs by the Syrian Arab NationalistBaathist government, the Assyrians are a distinct pre-Arab ethnic group with a history in the region dating perhaps as far back as the 25th century BC. They are aSyriac speaking community that traditionally belong to theAncient Church of the East,Assyrian Church of the East,Syriac Orthodox Church and theChaldean Catholic Church.[6] The modern Assyrians are native to "northernIraq, southeasternTurkey, northwesternIran and northeasternSyria".[17]
First settled by Assyrians fleeing theAssyrian genocide and then theSimele massacre, there are over 30 Assyrian villages on theKhabur river in Syria. According to a 1994 report they are: Tell Tawil, Tell Um Rafa, Tell Um Keff, Tell Kefdji, Tell Djemaa,Tell Tamer, Tell Nasri, Upper Tell Chamran, Lower Tell Chamran, Tell Chamran, Tell Hafian, Tell Talaa, Tell Maghas, Tell Massas, Abu Tine,Tel Goran, Fouedate, Dimchij, Kabar Chamie, Tell Balouet (Dezn), Tell Baz, Upper Tell Rouman, Lower Tell Rouman, El-Kharita, Tell Chame, Tell Wardiat, El-Makhada, Taal, Tell Sakra, El-Breij, Arbouche, and Tell Hormiz.[18] About 9,000 ethnic Assyrians moved from northern Iraq to join already extant Assyrian populations in northeastern Syria following theSimele massacre of 1933. They settled in the Jazirah near Tall Tamir on the upper Khabur River. The French established this Assyrian settlement with the assistance of the League of Nations, and in 1942 it became an integral part of Syria. The Assyrian settlement on the Khabur valley consists of about 20 villages, primarily agricultural. They have faced severe economic pressures over the years, despite owning their own irrigated lands, and some of them immigrated to the US, where there exists a large community.[6]
In an interview withAid to the Church in Need, bishop Jules Boutros, of theSyriac Catholic Church, said most young Syriacs were trying to get out of Syria. "Most of our young people are trying to get out of Iraq and Syria. (...) Things are worse in Syria, because the war is still going on. Military service is the biggest issue for our young men, because you have to serve for 9 or 10 years. After that time, if you return alive, you need to start from zero. This is in all of Syria. Things are worse in the Kurdish controlled area. Our young men have to serve with the Kurdish military, and then with the Syrian military. That is why in Syria it is so rare to find young men, they are all leaving. After five years abroad, if they pay US$8,000 dollars they can return without their military service. We are losing an entire generation."[7]
Assyrians celebrate religious holidays such asEaster andChristmas, as well as feasts of saints venerated in their respective churches.
All Assyrians celebrateAssyrian New Year, known as Ha b'Nison or Kha b'Nisan, on the 1st of April each year to celebrate the turn of the new year in the ancient Assyrian calendar. Assyrian New Year festivities have previously been outlawed in Syria.[19]
The majority of Assyrians in Syria adhere to both the East and West Syriac Rite. These include the following churches:
The presence of theChaldean Catholic Church dates back to the 16th century when Assyrians fromDiyarbakir migrated toAleppo.
TheChaldean Catholic Eparchy of Aleppo, under the tenure of the Bishop of Aleppo, Mar Antony Audo, was established in 1957 and is divided into 14 parishes.
There are fourdioceses of theSyriac Catholic Church in Syria including the:
TheSyriac Orthodox Church's patriarchal seat is located inDamascus after being transferred in 1959.[20] The Syriac Orthodox Church in Syria is represented by the Patriarch,Ignatius Aphrem II, with three archbishopric's located across Syria in the following:
In the mid-1970s, it was estimated that 82,000 Syriac Orthodox lived in Syria.[21]
In 2018 Professor John Shoup stated that the Assyrian population in Syria formed 4% of the country's total population, making it the fourth largest ethnic group in the country.[5]
TheAssyrian Democratic Organization (ADO), more commonly known as "Mtakasto", was founded in 1957 and serves as the oldest Assyrian political party in Syria. The principles of the party are based around huyodo/khoyada, unity, and gained a foothold amongst western Assyrian youth.[22]Gabriel Moushe Gawrieh, the current leader of the party, was detained by the Syrian government and imprisoned for 2 years, until his release in June 2016.[23][24]
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Assyrians have been caught between different political sides from the onset of theSyrian Civil War with some Assyrian groups allying with theSyrian Government and others with the Kurdish-ledSyrian Democratic Forces.
With the onset of the Syrian Civil War, Assyrians have formed numerous military forces in order to protect their communities. These range from military groups to police forces concentrated in the Al-Hasakah Governorate, mainly in Qamishli and Khabur. These militias include:
Gozarto Protection Force (GPF), or Sootoro, are a light infantry militia formed in 2012 that are aligned to theSyrian Government. The militia is composed mainly of Assyrians, with a smaller number of Armenians in the group. GPF mainly clash with ISIL, although they have also been involved in clashes with Kurdish forces stationed nearby.
TheSyriac Military Council (MFS) are a militia of theDawronoye ideology that are a component of theSyrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and under theSyriac Union Party. MFS have been involved in numerous offensives alongside the YPG, including some in northern Iraq (Nineveh &Sinjar). TheBethnahrain Women's Protection Forces are the female brigade of the MFS and assume guard roles in the Assyrian communities of northeast Syria.
Sutoro are the police wing of the Syriac Military Council and have been active in Syria from 2012 onwards. Sutoro police the Assyrian communities of northeast Syria, as well as working in concert with Asayish to safeguard the region.
Khabour Guards, as well asNattoreh are a militia tied to theAssyrian Democratic Party and are active in the Khabur Valley of Syria. Founded in 2012, Khabour Guards have been involved in SDF campaigns and in 2019, merged with the Syriac Military Council to form the Syriac-Assyrian Military Council.
The main group aligned with the Assad-government are theSootoro forces stationed in northeast Syria. In early 2016, Sootoro forces set up checkpoints in the Assyrian-controlled districts of Qamishli due to increasing terrorist attacks targeting Assyrians in the city. Members of Asayish, the security-wing of the YPG, approached the checkpoints and demanded they be dismantled. When Sootoro refused, Asayish fired at Sootoro soldiers, causing several casualties on both sides.[25][26]
The Syrian Civil War initially put much strain on Assyrians in Syria. As of November 2014, due to occupation by theISIL, only 23 Assyrian and Armenian families remain in the city ofRaqqa. Christian bibles and holy books have reportedly been burned by ISIL militants.[27][28]
On 23 February 2015, ISIL abducted 232 Assyrians from villages nearTell Tamer in the Khabur valley.[29][30][31] According to US diplomat Alberto M. Fernandez, of the 232 of the Assyrians kidnapped in the ISIL attack on the Assyrian Christian farming villages on the banks of the Khabur River in Northeast Syria, 51 were children and 84 women. "Most of them remain in captivity with one account claiming that ISIL is demanding $22 million (or roughly $100,000 per person) for their release."[32] On 8 October, ISIL released a video showing three of the Assyrian men kidnapped in Khabur being executed. It was reported that 202 of the 232 kidnapped Assyrians were still in captivity, each one with a demanded ransom of $100,000.[33] In early 2016, ISIL freed the remaining 42 hostages in exchange for an undisclosed ransom mediated by theAssyrian Church of the East.[34][35][36]
On 30 December 2015, 16 people were killed and 30 wounded when three blasts struck restaurants in the Assyrian district of Wusta in Qamishli. An IS-linked news agency,Amaq, said the group carried out the bombings. This prompted the Gozarto Protection Forces to set up checkpoints in the district as the Syrian government, nor the Kurdish-led DFNS could guarantee their safety.[37][38][39]
The decrease of political repression after government withdrawal and the inclusion of Assyrian political and military movements in theAutonomous Administration of North and East Syria has led to greater inclusion of Assyrians in the governance of the region. TheSyriac Union Party (SUP), committed to the secular leftist "Dawronoye" ideology,[41] is a part of the governingMovement for a Democratic Society (TEV-DEM) coalition. TheSutoro is an Assyrian police force, working in concert with the generalAsayish police force with the mission to police ethnic Assyrian areas and neighbourhoods.
WhileSyriac was an official language of the Jazira Region from the outset, in August 2016, theOurhi Centre in the city ofQamishli was started by the Assyrian community, to educate teachers in order to make Syriac-Aramaic an additional language to be taught in public schools,[42][43] which then started with the 2016/17 academic year.[44] With that academic year, states the region's Education Committee, "three curriculums have replaced the old one, to include teaching in three languages: Kurdish, Arabic and Syriac."[45]
The region, however, has been accused of closing down 14 Assyrian schools that have refused to adhere to a curriculum produced by the Kurdish-led government. Many Assyrians have rejected the new curriculum, stating that the curriculum is not recognized or accredited elsewhere, while the Syrian government-led curriculum is.[46] There is also opposition by Assyrians against the curriculum produced by the region's administration, which some Assyrian leaders say has been an attempt to impose aKurdish nationalist curriculum across the region.[47][48]
In April 2015, David Jendo, the leader of the Khabur Guards, was assassinated after being kidnapped alongside fellow commander, Elias Nasser. Both men were blindfolded and driven to a remote location, supposedly to have an urgent meeting with YPG leadership. Jendo and Nasser were then shot and David Jendo immediately died, while Elias Nasser was severely wounded. Jendo had publicly spoken against the YPG looting Assyrian homes in 2015. The attackers were allegedly arrested and tried in a regional court, resulting in 20 years prison for the two killers, 4 and 1 years respectively for the other two attackers.[49][50]
In November 2015, sixteen Assyrian and Armenian civic and church organizations issued a joint statement protesting Kurdish expropriation of private property. The statement accuses the PYD of human rights violations, expropriation of private property, illegal military conscription and interference in church school curricula.[51]
Kurds in Syria have been accused of silencing Assyrian critics of their administration, usually using Assyrian proxy forces such as Sutoro to intimidate these critics. On September 30, 2018, prominent Assyrian writer Souleman Yousph was arrested without being informed of charges, in what is alleged to be in response to an article published by Mr. Yousph in which he criticized the de facto Kurdish authorities for closing Assyrian schools, as well as the assault on Issa Rashid, a fellow Assyrian writer. One day after his arrest, Sutoro announced a statement saying that"Action had to be taken against those spreading lies, that democracy has rules and limitations, and that defamation is punishable by law in Western countries".[52][53]
Syria has several other ethnic groups, the Kurds... they make up an estimated 9 percent...Turkomen comprise around 4-5 percent. of the total population. The rest of the ethnic mix of Syria is made of Assyrians (about 4 percent), Armenians (about 2 percent), and Circassians (about 1 percent).
Assyrians in Asia | |
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