| Assamese literature অসমীয়া সাহিত্য | |
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Assamese literature is the entire corpus of poetry, novels, short stories, plays, documents and other writings in theAssamese language. It also includes the literary works in the older forms of the language during its evolution to the contemporary form and its cultural heritage and tradition. The literary heritage of theAssamese language can be traced back to thec. 9–10th century in theCharyapada (IAST: caryāpada), where the earliest elements of the language can be discerned.[1]
Banikanta Kakati divides the history of Assamese literature into three prominent eras—Early Assamese,Middle Assamese andModern Assamese[2]—which is generally accepted.
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The first reference to the language of Assam was found in the account of famous Chinese monk-cum-travelerHuen Tsang. He visited theKamarupa Kingdom (Kāmarūpa) during the reign ofBhaskaravarman ofVarman dynasty. While visiting Kamrupa in seventh century,Xuanzang noted that the language of the region was slightly different from the language of Middle India (Magadha). He was able to identify the phonetic differences evident in the region.[6] Even though systematic errors in the Sanskrit ofKamarupa inscriptions portray anunderlying Pakrit in the pre-12th century period,[7] scarce examples of the language exist. TheCharyapadas, the Buddhist ballads of 8th-10th century some of whose composers were fromKamarupa and the language of which bear strongaffinities with Assamese (besidesBengali,Maithili andOriya), are considered the first examples of Assamese literature. The spirit of theCharyapadas are found in later-dayDeh-Bicharor Geet (dehavicārar gīta) and other aphorisms; and some of the ragas found their way to the 15th-16th centuryBorgeets.[8] In the 12th-14th century period the works of Ramai Pandit (Sunya Puran),Boru Chandidas (Krishna Kirtan), Sukur Mamud (Gopichandrar Gan), Durlabha Mallik (Gobindachandrar Git) and Bhavani Das (Mainamatir Gan) bear strong grammatical relationship to Assamese; and their expressions and their use ofadi-rasa are found in the later Panchali works of Mankar and Pitambar.[8] These works are claimed as examples ofBengali literature as well. After this period of shared legacy, a fully differentiated Assamese literature finally emerged in the 14th century.
This period saw the flourishing of two kinds of literary activity: translations and adaptations, and choral songs.
The earliest known Assamese writer of this period wasHema Saraswati, whose well known works includePrahlad Charita (prahlādacarita) andHara Gauri Samvada (haragaurīsaṃvāda).[9] The story of thePrahlad Charita is taken from theVamana Purana and theHara Gouri Samvada includes the myth of Hara-Gouri marriage, birth of Kartik etc. Kaviratna Saravati'sJayadratha-vadha;Rudra Kandali'sSatyaki-pravesa are prominent works of this era.Harivara Vipra, a court poet ofKamata Kingdom, composedBabhruvahanar Yuddha (babhruvāhanar yuddha) based on theMahabharata,[10]Lava-Kushar Yuddha (lavakuśar yuddha) based on the Ramayana, andTamradwajar Yudha (tāmradhvajar yuddha). Though translated works, they contain local descriptions and embellishments, a feature that describes all translated work of this period. HisBabhruvahanar Yuddha, for instance makes references to articles of theAhom kingdom,[11] which at that time was a small kingdom in the east, and describes the undividedLakhimpur region,[12] and inLava-Kushar Yuddha he departs from the original and describes local customs forRama andSita'spumsavana ceremony.[13] All these works are associated with Durlabhanarayana ofKamata and his immediate successors.
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The major work from this period that left a lasting impression isSaptakanda Ramayana (saptakāṇḍarāmāyana), composed byMadhava Kandali in verse, and recited[14] in the court of a 14th-century Baraha king Mahamanikya (Mahamanikpha) who ruled either in the Nagaon or the Golaghat region.[15] In chronology, among vernacular translations of the original Sanskrit, Kandali's Ramayana comes afterKamban's (Tamil, 12th century), and ahead ofKirttivas' (Bengali, 15th century),Tulsidas' (Awadhi, 16th century), Balaram Das' (Oriya) etc.[16] Thus theSaptakanda Ramayana becomes the first rendition of theRamayana into anIndo-Aryan language in the Indian subcontinent.[17] The literary language (as opposed to the colloquial Assamese) this work adopted became the standard literary language for much of the following periods, till the rise of new literature in the 19th century. That his work was a major influence can be inferred fromSankardeva's tribute to the "opromadi purbo kobi" (apramādī pūrvakavi,unerring predecessor poet).[18]
Thepada form of metrical verse (14 syllables in each verse with identical two syllables at the end of each foot in a couplet) became a standard in Assamesekavya works, something that continued till the modern times. Though a translated work, it is infused with local color, and instead of the heroic, Kandali instead emphasized the homely issues of relationships etc. Among the two kinds ofalamkara's,arthalankaras were used extensively, with similes and metaphors taken from the local milieu even though the original works are set in foreign lands; whereas theshabdalankara (alliteration etc.) were rarely used.[19]
In the pre-shankari era, a renowned mathematician,Bakul Kayastha fromKamarupa Kingdom, compiledKitabat Manjari(1434), which was a translation of theLīlāvatī byBhāskara II intoAssamese.[20]Kitabat Manjari is a poetical treatise onArithmetic,Surveying andBookkeeping. The book teaches how accounts are to be kept under different heads and how stores belonging to the royal treasury are to be classified and entered into a stock book. The works ofBakul Kayastha were regarded as standards in his time to be followed by otherKayasthas in maintaining royal accounts.[21]
Choral songs composed for a popular form of narration-performances calledOja-Pali, a precursor to theater and theatrical performances, came to be known asPanchali works.[22] Though some of these works are contemporaneous to Sankardeva's, they hark back to older forms free of Sankardeva's influences and so are considered pre-Sankardeva literature.[23] TheOja-palis follow two different traditions:biyah-gowa which tells stories from the Mahabharata andMaroi, which tells stories on the snake goddessManasa.[22] The poets—Pitambar, Durgabar, Mankar and Sukavi Narayan—are well known for the compositions.[22]
প্ৰথমে প্ৰণামো ব্ৰহ্মৰূপী সনাতন ।
সৰ্ব্ব অৱতাৰৰ কাৰণ নাৰায়ণ ।।
তযু নাভি কমলত ব্ৰহ্মা ভৈলা জাত ।
যুগে যুগে অৱতাৰ ধৰা অসংখ্যাত ।।১।।
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| Medieval to early Modern |
In Assamese literature, the era ofShankardeva or Shankari era, incorporates the literary works that were produced mostly as pertinent to theNeo-Vaishnavite movement which propagated theEkasarana Nama-Dharma. Sankardeva’s contribution to Assamese literature is multidimensional and spread through different genres of literature. He is credited with building on past cultural relics and devising new forms of music (Borgeet), theatrical performance (Ankia Naat,Bhaona), dance (Sattriya), literary language (Brajavali). Sankardev produced a large body of work. Though there were others before him who wrote in the language of the common man, it was Sankardev who opened the floodgates and inspired others likeMadhavdev to carry on where he left off.[24][25][26] His magnum opus is theKirtana-Ghosha which contains narrative verses glorifyingShri Krishna, meant for community singing. His other prominent literary works include the rendering of eight books of theBhagavata Purana including theAdi Dasama (ādidaśama, Book X),Harishchandra-upakhyana (hariścandra upākhyāna),Bhakti-pradip (bhaktipradīpa),Nimi-navasiddha-samvada (niminavasiddhasaṃvāda),Bhakti-ratnakara (bhaktiratnākara; Sanskrit verses, mostly from theBhagavata, compiled into a book),Anadi-patana,Gunamala and many plays likeCihna yatra (cihna-yātrā),Rukmini haran (rukmiṇī-haraṇa),Patni prasad (patnī-prasāda),Keli Gopal (keli-gopāla),Kurukshetra yatra (kurukṣetra-yātrā) andSrirama vijaya (śrīrāma-vijaya).[27][28][29]
Madhavdeva, a disciple ofSankardeva, has a large scale contribution to Assamese literature. HisMagnum opus,Naam Ghosa (nāmaghoṣa) is based chiefly on theBhagavata Purana. The Naam-Ghosa is known by the name of Hajari Ghosa as well, as it contains one thousand verses (ghoṣas).HisGuru Bhatima, a long poem of praise to his Guru Sankardev, is also popular.Bhakti-Ratnavali (bhakti-ratnāvalī) is another notable work, rendered by Madhavadeva from the original work by Viṣṇupurī in Sanskrit. Other prominent works includeNaam Maalikaa (nāma-mālikā,Assamese rendering of the Ādi Kāṇḍa of Vālmīki'sRamayana),Janma Rahasya, 191Borgeets and several plays.[30][31][32][33][34]
After Sankardev and Madhavdev, several other writers emerged and contributed to Assamese literature.Ananta Kandali'sMahiravana Vadha,Harihara Yuddha,Vrttrasura Vadha, Kumara Harana and Sahasra Nama Vrttanta;Rama Saraswati's translation of theMahabharata,Geeta Govinda andVadha Kavyas; a part ofNaam Ghosa by Ratnakar Kandali;Sridhar Kandali'sKumara Harana;Janmajatra,Nandutsav, Gopi-Uddhab Sambad andSitar Patal Pravesh byGopaldev; compilation ofKirtan Ghosha by Ramcharan Thakur;Nava Ghosha, Santasaar, Burha-Bhashya by Purushottam Thakur etc. are notable of the period.[35][36][27][37]
Bhattadeva, another notable writer of this period, is acknowledged as thefather of Assamese prose.[38]Katha Bhagavata, Katha Gita, Bhaktiratnavali, Bhakti Viveka (Sanskrit) etc. are his prominent works. BhattadevBhattadeva's erudition in Sanskrit grammar and literature, and his command over the Bhagavata earned him the title ofBhagavata Bhattacharya.[39][40]
Along with the expansion of power and border of theAhom kingdom, literary works other than Neo-vaishnavite centric started gaining momentum in the 18th century. However the tradition of composing works based on Sanskrit scriptures still continued. Raghunath Mahanta was one of the most important figures of this period whose well known works include Katha-Ramayana, Adbhut Ramayana and Satrunjoy- all of them are based on theRamayana.[41][42][43] Kabiraj Chakravarti's translation ofBrahma Vaivarta Purana andShakuntala, Gitar Puthi of Kabiraj Chakravati mentions several songs themselves composed by the Ahom RajasRudra Singha andSiva Singha. Kavichandra Dwija'sDharma Purana, Bishnu Dev Goswami'sPadma Purana, Putala Charitra by Borruchi, Ramchadra Borpatra'sHoigrib-Madhva Kahini, Acharya Dwija'sAnanda-Lahari, Ruchinath Kandali's translation of Chandi Aakhyana are important works of this period. Among translation of texts related to practical knowledge include translation of Srihastha Muktavali onDance and mudra by Suchand Ojha, translations of Kaamratna- Tantra, Bhaswati by Kaviraj Chakraborti.Hastividyarnava, commissioned under the patronage of kingSiva Singha and translated by Sukumar Barkaith, is based on the Sanskrit textGajendra-Chintamoni by Sambhunath. Books like Ghora Nidaan, Aswanidaan by Surjyakhari Daivajna were also compiled during this period.[44][45][46]
Attached to the palace of the Ahom Kings there was a set of apartments for the preservation of royal manuscripts, records, letters despatches, and maps in charge of a high official named Gandbia Barua. There was another officer named Likhakar Barua literally the superintendent of scribes who supervised the work of an army of clerks and copyists.[47]
This is a period of the prose chronicles (Buranji) of theAhom court. The Ahoms had brought with them an instinct for historical writings. In the Ahom court, historical chronicles were at first composed in their originalTai-Kadai language, but when the Ahom rulers adopted Assamese as the court language, historical chronicles began to be written in Assamese. From the beginning of the 17th century onwards, court chronicles were written in large numbers. These chronicles or buranjis, as they were called by the Ahoms, broke away from the style of the religious writers. The language is essentially modern except for slight alterations in grammar and spelling.
The British implementedBengali in 1836 in Assam after the state was occupied and annexed with theBengal Presidency. As a result of this, it is argued that the progress of education in Assam remained not only slow but highly defective and a lot of Bengalis were brought in and employed in the different schools of Assam. Writing of text books in Assamese for school children did not get any encouragement and Assamese literature naturally suffered in its growth.[48] Due to a sustained campaign, Assamese was reinstated in 1873 as the state language. Since the initial printing and literary activity occurred in eastern Assam, the Eastern dialect was introduced in schools, courts, and offices and soon came to be formally recognized as the Standard Assamese. In recent times, with the growth ofGuwahati as the political and commercial center of Assam, the Standard Assamese has moved away from its roots in the Eastern dialect.
The modern Assamese period began with the publication of theBible in Assamese prose by the AmericanBaptistmissionaries in 1819.[49] The currently prevalent standardAsamiya has its roots in the Sibsagar dialect of Eastern Assam. As mentioned in Bani Kanta Kakati's "Assamese, its Formation and Development" (1941, Published by Sree Khagendra Narayan Dutta Baruah, LBS Publications, G.N. Bordoloi Road, Gauhati-1, Assam, India) – "The Missionaries made Sibsagar in Eastern Assam the centre of their activities and used the dialect of Sibsagar for their literary purposes". The American Baptist Missionaries were the first to use this dialect in translating the Bible in 1813.
The missionaries established the firstprinting press inSibsagar in 1836 and started using the local Asamiya dialect for writing purposes. In 1846 they started a monthly periodical calledArunodoi, and in 1848,Nathan Brown published the first book on Assamese grammar. The Missionaries published the first Assamese-English Dictionary compiled by M. Bronson in 1867. One of the major contributions of the American Baptist missionaries to theAssamese language is the reintroduction of Assamese as the official language inAssam. In 1848 missionaryNathan Brown published a treatise on the Assamese language.[50] This treatise gave a strong impetus towards reintroducing Assamese the official language in Assam. In his 1853 official report on the province of Assam,British official Moffat Mills wrote:
...the people complain, and in my opinion with much reason, of the substitution of Bengalee for the Vernacular Assamese. Bengalee is the language of the court, not of their popular books and shashtras, and there is a strong prejudice to its general use. …Assamese is described by Mr. Brown, the best scholar in the province, as a beautiful, simple language, differing in more respects from, than agreeing with, Bengalee, and I think we made a great mistake in directing that all business should be transacted in Bengalee, and that the Assamese must acquire it. It is too late now to retrace our steps, but I would strongly recommend Anandaram Phukan’s proposition to the favourable consideration of the Council of Education, viz., the substitution of the vernacular language in lieu of Bengalee, and completion of the course of the Vernacular education in Bengalee. I feel persuaded that a youth will, under this system of tuition, learn more in two than he now acquires in four years. An English youth is not taught in Latin until he is well grounded in English, and in the same manner, an Assamese should not be taught in a foreign language until he knows his own.[51]
মোৰ ই অন্তৰ খনি সাগৰৰ দৰে নীলা, বেদনাৰে –
দেখা নাই তুমি ?
উঠিছে মৰিছে য’ত বাসনাৰ লক্ষ ঢউ তোমাৰেই
স্মৃতি – সীমা চুমি |
— Dev Kanta Barooah, "Saagor Dekhisa"
The period of modern literature began with the publication the Assamese journalJonaki (জোনাকী) (1889), which introduced the short story form first byLakshminath Bezbaroa. Thus began the Jonaki period of Assamese literature. In 1894 Rajanikanta Bordoloi published the first Assamese novelMirijiyori.[52]
The modern Assamese literature has been enriched by the works ofJyoti Prasad Agarwalla,Birinchi Kumar Barua,Hem Barua,Atul Chandra Hazarika,Mafizuddin Ahmed Hazarika,Nalini Bala Devi,Navakanta Barua,Syed Abdul Malik,Mamoni Raisom Goswami,Bhabendra Nath Saikia,Homen Borgohain,Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya,D. K. Barooah, Nirupama Borgohain,Kanchan Baruah,Saurabh Kumar Chaliha and others. Moreover, as regards the spreading of Assamese literature outside Assam, the complete work ofJyoti Prasad Agarwala has been translated into Hindi to reach a wider audience byDevi Prasad Bagrodia. Bagrodia has also translatedShrimanta Shankardev's 'Gunamala' into Hindi.
In 1917 theAsam Sahitya Sabha was formed as a guardian of the Assamese society and the forum for the development of Assamese language and literature.Padmanath Gohain Baruah was the first president of the society.
Contemporary writers includeArupa Patangia Kalita,Parismita Singh, Monikuntala Bhattacharya, Mousumi Kondoli, Monalisa Saikia, Geetali Borah, Juri Borah Borgohain. Emerging trends are marked by experiments with post modernist literary technique and growing fascination of young writers with magic realism and surrealism. In the realm of literary criticism young literary critics Areendom Borkataki, Bhaskar Jyoti Nath, Debabhusan Borah are exploring different possibilities and ideas to meet the needs in literary criticism. Assamese literature is currently booming in Assamese-speaking world, with readership of Assamese books gradually increasing over the last decades. A huge success can be seen in North East book fair and Nagaon book fair, when selling of Assamese books increased then English books.[53]
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