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| Asherah | |
|---|---|
Lady Asherah (of the) Seaor Day[1] | |
 Figurine of Asherah,Hecht Museum, Israel | |
| Other names | Athirat |
| Major cult center | Levant |
| Symbol | Tree |
| Consort | |
| Offspring |
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| Part of a series onAncient Semitic religion |
| Levantine mythology |
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| Deities |
Asherah (/ˈæʃərə/;[2]Hebrew:אֲשֵׁרָה,romanized: ʾĂšērā;Ugaritic:𐎀𐎘𐎗𐎚,romanized: ʾAṯiratu;Akkadian:𒀀𒅆𒋥,romanized: Aširat;[3]Qatabanian:𐩱𐩻𐩧𐩩ʾṯrt)[4] was a goddess inancient Semitic religions. She also appears inHittite writings asAšerdu(š) orAšertu(š) (Hittite:𒀀𒊺𒅕𒌈,romanized: a-še-er-tu4),[5][6] and asAthirat inUgarit as the consort ofʾEl.[7] Asherah was a major goddess in ancientNorthwest Semitic cultures, often associated withfertility,motherhood, andsacred trees.
Asherah was sometimes called Elat, the feminine equivalent of El, and held titles such as “holy” (qdš), “lady” (rbt), or “progenitress of the gods” (qnyt ỉlm). Asherah’s iconography frequently depicted her with pronounced sexual features, often combined with tree motifs likedate palms, highlighting her role as a fertility goddess. Some artifacts, such as theRevadim Asherah figurines, illustrate hersuckling children or displaying sexual imagery, emphasizing her maternal and generative symbolism. Her worship may also be reflected inasherah poles, cultic objects frequently mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, though scholars debate whether these represent the goddess herself or sacred symbols.[8][7]
Asherah’s influence extended across regions includingIsrael and Judah,Philistia,Egypt, andArabia, appearing under different names and roles. In ancient Palestine, she may have been considered a consort ofYahweh, as suggested by inscriptions atKuntillet Ajrud andKhirbet el-Qom, though interpretations vary, and some scholars argue these references describe cultic objects rather than the goddess.[9][10][7] Similarities with other goddesses, such asShapshu,Hathor, andQetesh, suggest her image and attributes influenced surrounding cultures. Asherah was also linked to sacredfertility rites, which may have included women of status in ritual activities, though the association withtemple prostitution is now debated. Over time,monotheistic reforms suppressed her worship, and in later texts, references to Asherah were increasingly translated as groves or sacred trees rather than directly as a goddess.
Some have sought a common-noun meaning of her name, especially in Ugaritic appellationrabat athirat yam, only found in theBaal Cycle. But an Ugaritic homophone's meaning doesn't equate to anetymon, especially if the name is older thanUgaritic. There is no hypothesis forrabat athirat yam without significant issues, and if Asherah were a word from Ugarit, it would be pronounced differently.[1]
The commonNorthwest Semitic rootʾṯr (cfArabic:أثر) means "trace, way".[11]
Biblical Hebrew:הָאֲשֵׁרֽוֹת,romanized: ʾAšēroṯ, with the femininegrammatical gender plural form-oṯ,[12] is found three times in theHebrew Bible: inJudges 3:7 and2 Chronicles 19:3 and2 Chronicles 33:3. Archaic suffixes like –atu/a/i became Northwest Semitic -aṯ or -ā, the latter often written -ah in transcription. Terminally alternate spellings like Asherat and Asherah reflect contextual rather than existential variation.[13]
A masculine plural formAsherim appears inEzekiel 27:6, but refers to boxwood (Buxus sempervirens) as a variant form ofתְּאַשּׁוּרtəʾaššur "cypress of Lebanon" (Cedrus libani).[14]
Her name is sometimes’lt "Elat",[15] the feminine equivalent ofEl. Her titles often includeqdš "holy" andbaʽlat, orrbt "lady",[15][16] andqnyt ỉlm, "progenitress of the gods."[17]
Asherah was a significant divinity in Northwest Semitic cultures. However, particularly in theHebrew Bible,asherah came to be identified with cultic wooden objects referred to asasherah poles. In this context, there is controversy about whether inscriptions referring toAsherah indicate the deity, the asherah pole,[18] or both (de Vaux[11]). Winter says the goddess and her symbol should not be distinguished.[19]
Some scholars have proposed an early link between Asherah andEve based upon the coincidence of their common title as "the mother of all living" inGenesis 3:20[20] through the identification withḪepat ofAleppo. Ḫepat, whose name is Northwest Semitic in origin, was the partner ofstorm gods in severalWest Asian cultures speaking unrelated languages, including the West Semitic deityHadad in Aleppo andEbla,Teššub inHurrian religion, andTarḫunz of theLuwians of Anatolia.[21][22] Olyan states that the original Hebrew name for Eve,חַוָּהḤawwā, is cognate toḥawwat, an attested epithet ofTanit in the first millennium BCE,[23][a] though other scholars dispute a connection between Tanit and Asherah and between Asherah and Eve.[24] A Phoenician deity Ḥawwat is attested in thePunic Tabella Defixionis.
There is further speculation that theShekhinah as a feminine aspect ofYahweh may be a cultural memory or devolution of Asherah.[25] Another such aspect may be seen in the feminine personification ofWisdom in theBook of Proverbs.[26]
A variety of symbols have been associated with Asherah. The most common by far is a tree,[27] an equivalence seen as early as theNeolithic.[28]
Cultic objects dedicated to Asherah frequently depict trees, and the termsasherim andasheroth, regularly invoked by the Hebrew Bible in the context of Asherah worship, are traditionally understood to refer to asherah poles. An especially common Asherah tree in visual art is thedate palm, a reliable producer of nutrition throughout the year. Some expect living trees, but Olyan sees a stylized, non-living palm or pole.[29][page needed] The remains of ajuniper discovered in a7500 year old gravesite inEilat has been considered an Asherah tree by some.[30]
Asherah's association with fertility was not limited to her association with trees; she was often depicted with pronounced sexual features.[31] Images of Asherah, often called ’Astarte figurines’, are representative of Asherah as a tree in that they have bodies which resemble tree trunks,[32] while also further extenuating the goddess' connection to fertility in line with her status as a "mother goddess". The "Judean pillar figures" universally depict Asherah with protruding breasts. Likewise, the so-calledRevadim Asherah is rife with potent, striking sexual imagery, depicting Asherah suckling two smaller figures and using both of her hands to expose her vagina fully.[33] Many times, Asherah's pubis area was marked by a concentration of dots, indicating pubic hair,[34] though this figure is sometimes polysemically understood as agrape cluster.[31] The womb was also sometimes used as anutrix symbol, as animals are often shown feeding directly (if a bit abstractly) from the pubic triangle.[35]
Remarking on theLachish ewer, Hestrin noted[36] that in a group of other pottery vessels foundin situ, the usual depiction of the sacred tree flanked byNubian ibexes or birds is in one goblet replaced by a pubic triangle flanked by ibexes. The interchange between the tree and the pubic triangle prove, according to Hestrin, that the tree symbolizes the fertility goddess Asherah. Hestrin draws parallels between this and representations ofHathor as thesycamore goddess in Egypt, and suggests that during the period of theNew Kingdom of Egypt's rule in Palestine, the Hathor cult penetrated the region so extensively that she became identified with Asherah. Other motifs in the ewer such as a lion,Persian fallow deer and Nubian ibexes seem to have a close relationship with her iconography
Asherah may also have been associated with the ancient pan-Near Eastern "Master of Animals" motif, which depicted a person or deity betwixt twoconfronted animals. According to Beaulieu, depictions of a divine "mistress ofasiatic lions"Potnia Theron motif are "almost undoubtedly depictions of the goddess Asherah."[37]The lioness was a ubiquitous symbol for goddesses in the ancient Middle East, similar to thedove[38][page needed] and the tree.Lionesses figure prominently in Asherah's iconography, including in the post-Late Bronze Age collapse finds: inTi'inik known as theTa'anakh cult stand dating to the10th century BCE, which also includes a tree motif. An earlier arrowhead (11th century BCE) bears the inscription "Servant of the Lion Lady".[38][page needed]
The symbols around Asherah are so many (eight-pointed star,caprids, and lunisolar, arboreal, florid, and serpentine imagery) that a listing would approach meaninglessness as it neared exhaustiveness. Frevel's 1000-page dissertation ends enigmatically with the pronouncement "There is no genuine Asherah iconography".[39][40]
AnAmorite goddess namedAshratum is known to have been worshipped in Sumer. Her Amorite provenance is further supported by her status as the wife ofMardu/Amurrum, the supreme deity of the Amorites.[43]
A limestone slab inscribed with a dedication made byHammurabi to Ashratum is known fromSippar. In it, he complements her as "lord of the mountain" (bel shadī), and presages similar use with words likevoluptuousness, joy, tender, patient, mercy to commemorate setting up a "protective genius" (font?) for her in her temple.[44]
Though it is accepted that Ashratum's name is cognate to that of Ugaritic Athirat, the goddess occupies different positions within the pantheons of the two religions, despite having in both the status of consort to the supreme deity.[45]
InAkkadian texts, Asherah appears asAširatu; though her exact role in the pantheon is unclear; in the Sumerian votive inscription ofHammurabi, she is referred as the daughter-in-law ofAnu, thesky god.[46][47] In contrast,ʿAshtart is believed to be linked to the Mesopotamian goddessIshtar who is sometimes portrayed as the daughter of Anu.[48]
In the first of twoAmorite-Akkadian bilingual tablets from the 2nd millennium BCE and published in 2022, Asherah appears in the Amorite left column asašeratum, while the corresponding Akkadian divine name in the right column isBelet-ili, the Akkadian name of themother goddessNinhursag.[49]
Points of reference in Akkadian epigraphy are collocated and heterographic in the Amarna Letters 60 and 61's Asheratic personal name. Within theseAmarna letters is found a king of the Amorites by the14th century BCE name ofAbdi-Ashirta "servant of Asherah".[50]
| * EA 60 ii | um-maIÌR-daš-ra-tum |
| * EA 61 ii | [um-]maIÌR-a-ši-ir-te ÌR-[-ka4 |
Each is on line ii within the letter's opening or greeting sentiment. Some may transcribeAširatu orAšratu.[48]
Among theHittites this goddess appears asAšertu(š) orAšerdu(š) in the myth ofElkunirša ("El, the Creator ofEarth") her husband, in which she tried to sleep with the storm god.[51]
InUgaritic texts, Asherah appears asUgaritic:𐎀𐎘𐎗𐎚,romanized: ʾṯrt,[52] anglicisedʾAṯirat orAthirat. She is calledʾElat,𐎛𐎍𐎚ʾilt "goddess", the feminine form ofʾEl (compareAllāt); she is also calledQodeš, "holiness" (𐎖𐎄𐎌qdš. There is reference to ašr. ‘ṯtrt.[53] Gibson says sources from before 1200 BC almost always credit Athirat with her full titlerbt ʾṯrt ym (orrbt ʾṯrt).[54][b] However, Rahmouni's indexing of Ugaritic epithets states the phrase occurs in only theBaal Cycle.[55] Apparently of Akkadian origin,rabat means "lady" (literally "female great one").[55] She appears to champion her son,Yam, god of the sea, in his struggle against Baʾal. (Yam's ascription asgod of the sea may mislead; Yam is the deified sea itself rather than a deity who holds dominion over it.) So some say Athirat's title can be translated as "Lady ʾAṯirat of the Sea",[56] alternatively, "she who walks on the sea",[1] or even "the Great Lady-who-tramples-Yam."[57] This invites relation to aChaoskampf in which neither she nor Yam is otherwise implicated. Park suggested in 2010 that the name Athirat might be derived from a passive participle form, referring to the "one followed by (the gods)", that is, "progenitress or originatress", which would correspond to Asherah's image as the "mother of the gods" in Ugaritic literature.[58] This solution was a response to and variation of B. Margalit's of her following in Yahweh's literal footsteps, a less generous estimation nonetheless supported by DULAT's use of the Ugaritian word in an ordinary sense. Binger finds some of these risibly imaginative, and unhappily falls back on the still-problematic interpretation that Ym may also mean day, so "Lady Asherah of the day", or, more simply, "Lady Day".[59] The common Semitic rootywm (for reconstructedProto-Semitic *yawm-),[60] from which derives (Hebrew:יוֹם), meaning "day", appears in several instances in theMasoretic Text with the second-root letter (-w-) having been dropped, and in a select few cases, replaced with anA-class vowel of theniqqud forTiberian Hebrew,[61] resulting in the word becomingy(a)m. Such occurrences, as well as the fact that the plural "days" can be read as bothyomim andyāmim (Hebrew:יָמִים), give credence to this alternate translation.
Another primary epithet of Athirat was𐎖𐎐𐎊𐎚 𐎛𐎍qnyt ʾlm,[62] which may be translated as "the creator of thedeities".[54] In those texts, Athirat is the consort of ʾEl; there is one reference to the seventy sons of Athirat, presumably the same as the seventy sons of ʾEl.
The Ugaritic texts reveal significant parallels between the goddesses Athirat andShapshu, suggesting a possible identification. Both are referred to as "The Lady" (rbt), a title signifying supreme authority in the pantheon, and they are described as mothers of the gods, key figures in creation, and central to maintaining cosmic order. Athirat’s epithetrbt ˀaṯrt ym has traditionally been interpreted as "Lady Athirat of the Sea." Recent analyses[63] propose thatym might mean "day" instead of "sea." This reading aligns with Athirat’s name (ˀaṯrt), meaning "the one who goes," reflecting the sun’s journey across the sky.[64]
Another significant reason for this conflation would be a passage found in Ugaritic inscription KTU 1.23 which describes the myth known asThe Gracious and Most Beautiful Gods. In this text, the twinsShahar "Dawn" andShalim "Dusk", are described as the offspring of El through two women he meets at the seashore. The brothers are both nursed by "The Lady", likely Asherah, and in other Ugaritic texts, the two are associated with the sun goddessShapshu.[65]
There is significant debate on whether Asherah was worshipped in ancientIsraelite religion.[7] Some scholars argue that Asherah was venerated asYahweh's consort,[66][67][8][68] while others oppose this arguing that the relevantHebrew epigraphic evidence actually refers to some cultic place or object rather than a goddess.[7][69][70][71]
Possible evidence for her worship includes an iconography and inscriptions at two locations in use circa the 9th century. The first was in a cave atKhirbet el-Qom.[75]
The second was atKuntillet Ajrud.[76][77] In the latter, a jar shows bovid-anthropomorphic figures and several inscriptions[38][78] that refer to "Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah" and "Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah."[79] However, a number of scholars hold that the "asherah" mentioned in the inscriptions refers to some kind of cultic object or symbol, rather than a goddess. Some scholars have argued that since cognate forms of "asherah" are used with the meaning of "sanctuary" inPhoenician andAramaic inscriptions from the same period, this may also be the meaning of the term in the two Hebrew inscriptions.[69][70][80] Others argue that the term "asherah" may refer to asacred tree used for the worship of Yahweh as this is the meaning that the Hebrew term has in theHebrew Bible and in theMishnah.[81][82]: 59–60
In one potsherd there appear a large and small bovine.[83] This "oral fixation" motif has diverse examples, see figs 413–419 in Winter.[84] In fact, already Flinders Petrie in the 1930s was referring to Davies on the memorable stereotype.[85][full citation needed] It's such a common motif in Syrian and Phoenician ivories that theArslan Tash horde had at least four.
Early scholarship emphasized somewhat mutually-negating possibilities ofholy prostitution,hieros gamos, and orgiastic rites.[86]It has been suggested by several scholars[87][88] that there is a relationship between the position of thegəḇirā in the royal court and the worship of Asherah in1 Kings 15:13,18:19, and2 Kings 10:13.
The Hebrew Bible frequently and graphically associates goddess worship with prostitution (זְנוּתzənuṯ "whoredom") in material written after the reforms of KingJosiah.Jeremiah andEzekiel blame goddess worship for making Yahweh "jealous", and cite his jealousy as the reason he allowed thedestruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. Although their nature remains uncertain, sexual rites typically revolved around women of power and influence, such asMaacah. The Hebrew termqadishtu, formerly translated as "temple prostitutes", literally means "priestesses" or "consecrated women", from the Semitic rootqdš, meaning "holy".[89] However, sacred prostitution is no longer a broad presumption. Some argue that sex acts within the temple were limited to yearly sacredfertility rites aimed at assuring an abundant harvest.[90][91]
There are references to the worship ofnumerous deities throughout the Books of Kings: Solomon builds temples to many deities and Josiah is reported as removing cultic items of Asherah in the temple Solomon built for Yahweh.[93] Josiah's grandfather Manasseh had erected a statue of Asherah or perhaps an asherah pole (2 Kings 21:7).[94]
The nounʾăšērâ appears forty times in the Hebrew Bible, although in most cases this refers to some cultic object.[95] The word is translated inSeptuagint asGreek:ἄλσος (grove; plural: ἄλση) in every instance apart from Isaiah 17:8; 27:9 and 2 Chronicles 15:16; 24:18, withGreek:δένδρα (trees) being used for the former, and, peculiarly, Ἀστάρτη (Astarte) for the latter. The Vulgate in Latin providedlucus ornemus, a grove or a wood. From the Vulgate, the King James translation of the Bible usesgrove orgroves instead of Asherah's name.[citation needed] Non-scholarly English language readers of the Bible would not have read her name for more than 400 years afterward.[96] The association of Asherah with trees in the Hebrew Bible is very strong. For example, she is found under trees (1 Kings 14:23; 2 Kings 17:10) and is made of wood by human beings (1 Kings 14:15, 2 Kings 16:3–4). The farther from the time of Josiah's reforms, the broader the perception of an Asherah became. Trees described in later Jewish texts as being an asherah or part of an asherah includegrapevines,pomegranates,walnuts,myrtles, andwillows.[97] Eventually, monotheistic leaders would suppress the tree due to its association with Asherah.[citation needed]
Deuteronomy 12 hasYahweh commanding the destruction of her shrines so as to maintain purity of his worship.[98]Jezebel brought hundreds of prophets for Baal and Asherah with her into the Israelite court.[99]
William Dever's bookDid God Have a Wife? discussesJudean female pillar figurines, thequeen of heaven name, and the cakes. Dever also points to the temple atTel Arad, the famous archaeological site with cannabinoids and massebot. Dever notes: "The only goddess whose name is well attested in the Hebrew Bible (or in ancient Israel generally) is Asherah."[100]
Various partial inscriptions found on destroyed seventh century BCE jars inEkron contain words likešmn "oil",dbl "fig cake",qdš "holy,"l'šrt "to Asherah", andlmqm "for the shrine". This has been taken as evidence that Asherah was worshipped inPhilistia.[101] However,Frank Moore Cross argues that the "asherah" mentioned in the Ekron inscription refers to ashrine, not to the goddess.[102]: 21–22
Attempts to identify Asherah within the pantheon of ancient Egypt have been met with both limited acceptance and controversy.
Beginning during theEighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, a Semitic goddess namedQetesh ("holiness", sometimes reconstructed asQudshu) appears prominently. That dynasty follows expulsion of occupying foreigners from anintermediary period. René Dussard suggested a connection to Asherah in 1941. Subsequent studies tried to find further evidence for equivalence of Qetesh and Asherah, although Wiggins does not.[103] His hesitance did not dissuade subsequent scholars from equating Asherah with Qetesh.[15]
AsʾAṯirat (Qatabanian:𐩱𐩻𐩧𐩩ʾṯrt), the goddess is attested in severalPre-Islamic inscriptions fromsouth Arabia dating from the mid-first millennium BCE to the mid-first millennium CE.[95][104] As she is sometimes mentioned alongside the moon-godsWadd andʿAmm, she might have been considered a consort of either of them or both.[95][105]
One of theTema stones (CIS II 113) discovered by Charles Huber in 1883 in the ancientoasis ofTema, northwestern Arabia, and now located at theLouvre, believed to date to the time ofNabonidus's retirement there in 549 BC, bears an inscription inAramaic that mentionsṢelem of Maḥram (צלם זי מחרמ),Šingalāʾ (שנגלא), andʾAšîrāʾ (אשירא) as the deities of Tema. It is unclear whether the name would be an Aramaic vocalisation of the UgariticʾAṯirat or a later borrowing of the HebrewʾĂšērāh or similar form. In any event, Watkins says the root of both names is aProto-Semitic*ʾṯrt.[106] Pritchard excerpts the mentionwšnglʔ wʔšyrʔ ʔlhy tymʔ and differs on the root's meaning.[107][108]
The Arabic rootʾṯr (as inأثرʾaṯar, "trace") is similar in meaning to the Hebrewʾāšar, indicating "to tread", used as a basis to explain Asherah's epithet "of the sea" as "she who treads theym (sea).[109]"[110]
Asherah survived late in remote South Arabia as seen in some common era Qatabanian and Maʕinian inscriptions.[111]
Proverbs... includes explicit references to a female divine being, an Asherah-like goddess personifying Wisdom and present beside YHWH at the early time of creation
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