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Asante Empire Asanteman (Asante Twi) | |||||||||||||||
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 Map of the Asante Empire | |||||||||||||||
| Status | State union withGhana | ||||||||||||||
| Capital | Kumasi | ||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Asante(Twi) (official),Hausa,Dyula | ||||||||||||||
| Religion | Akan religion | ||||||||||||||
| Demonym | Asantefoɔ | ||||||||||||||
| Government | Constitutionalelective monarchy | ||||||||||||||
• 1670–1717 (first) | Osei Tutu | ||||||||||||||
• 1888–1896 (13th) | Prempeh I | ||||||||||||||
• 1931–1957 (last) | Prempeh II | ||||||||||||||
• 1999–present (national state within Ghana) | Osei Tutu II | ||||||||||||||
| Legislature | Asante Kotoko (Council of Kumasi)[1] and the Asantemanhyiamu (National Assembly) | ||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||
• Earliest evidence of human occupation atAsantemanso[2] | 700BCE | ||||||||||||||
• Development ofAsantemanso as an early urban and ritual center | 9th century CE[3][4] | ||||||||||||||
| 9th-10th centuryCE[5][6] | |||||||||||||||
• Part ofAkani (Arcania) | 15th–16th centuriesCE[7][8] | ||||||||||||||
• Fragmentation ofAkani and migration ofAkan lineages | 16th–17th centuries CE[9][10] | ||||||||||||||
• Independence fromDenkyira and establishment of the Asante Union | 1701 | ||||||||||||||
• Annexed to form BritishAshanti Crown Colony | 1901[11] | ||||||||||||||
• Self-rule within British colony | 1935 | ||||||||||||||
• State union of the Asante Kingdom with Ghana | 1957 | ||||||||||||||
| Present | |||||||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||||||
| [12][13] | 259,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||||
| 3,000,000–4,000,000 | |||||||||||||||
| Currency | Mperedwan, Benda | ||||||||||||||
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| Today part of |  Ghana Ivory Coast Togo | ||||||||||||||
TheAsante Empire (Asante Twi:Asanteman), also known as theAshanti Empire, was anAkan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-dayGhana.[16] It expanded from theAshanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts ofIvory Coast andTogo.[17][18] Due to the empire'smilitary prowess,wealth, architecture,sophisticated hierarchy andculture, the Asante Empire has been extensively studied and has more historic records written by European, primarily British, authors than any other indigenous culture ofsub-Saharan Africa.[19][20]
Starting in the late 17th century, the Asante kingOsei Tutu (c. 1695 – 1717) and his adviserOkomfo Anokye established the Asante Kingdom, with theGolden Stool of Asante as a sole unifying symbol.[16][21] Osei Tutu oversaw a massive Asante territorial expansion, building up the army by introducing new organisation and turning a disciplined royal and paramilitary army into an effective fighting machine. In 1701, the Asante army conqueredDenkyira, giving the Asante access to theGulf of Guinea and theAtlantic Ocean coastal trade with Europeans, notably theDutch.[19] The economy of the Asante Empire was mainly based on the trade of gold and agricultural exports[22] as well asslave trading,craft work and trade with markets furthernorth.[15]
The Asante Empire fought several wars with neighboring kingdoms and lesser organized groups such as theFante. The Asante held their own against theBritish in the first two of the fiveAnglo-Ashanti Wars, killing British army generalSir Charles MacCarthy and keeping his skull as a gold-rimmed drinking cup in 1824. British forces later burnt and sacked the Asante capital ofKumasi, however, and following the final Asante defeat at the fifth Anglo-Ashanti War, the Asante empire became part of the Gold Coast colony on 1 January 1902. Today, the Asante Kingdom survives as a constitutionally protected, sub-nationaltraditional state[23] in union with the Republic of Ghana. The current king of the Asante kingdom isOtumfuo Osei Tutu II. The Asante kingdom is the home toLake Bosumtwi, Ghana's only natural lake. The state's current economic revenue is derived mainly from trading ingold bars,cocoa,kola nuts andagriculture.[19]
The nameAsante means "because of war". The word derives from theTwi wordsɔsa meaning "war" andnti meaning "because of". This name comes from the Asante's origin as a kingdom created to fight theDenkyira kingdom.[24]
The variant name "Ashanti" comes from British reports transcribing "Asante" as the British heard it pronounced,as-hanti. The hyphenation was subsequently dropped and the nameAshanti remained, with various spellings includingAshantee common into the early 20th century.
In Asante oral traditions,Amansie, also referred to asAsumennya–Santenmanso, is described as the primordial homeland of the Akan people, particularly theAduana andOyoko clans, and is said to mean the “Origin of the Nations” or the settlement of the “Aborigines”.[25] From this place, a large portion of the population separated and migrated eastward toAdanse, where they began to build permanent dwellings, marking the transition from nomadic life to settled habitation and organized kingship.[25] Excavations atAsantemanso, near present-dayEssumeja, have revealed continuous occupation from at least the 9th centuryCE, with traces of earlier habitation possibly dating as far back as 700BCE.[2] The site shows evidence ofiron smelting, pottery manufacture, and domestic structures, indicating that it functioned as a permanent and organized settlement rather than solely a sacred site.[4]
During the first millenniumCE,Asantemanso emerged as part of a broader network of early towns across theforest–savanna transition zone, includingBegho,Bono Manso, andAhwene Koko. These settlements formed an interconnected commercial system linked toWangara and Middle Niger Valley trade networks, which suppliedgold,kola, and other commodities to thetrans-Saharan markets.[26][27] Archaeological findings at Begho, which flourished between the 8th and 17th centuries, reveal distinct residential quarters, brass casting, and imported items such as glass beads, copper, and Chinese porcelain, confirming that Akan societies were integrated into regional and long-distance trade well before European contact.[28]
By the 10th century,Asantemanso had developed into a substantial urban complex. Its ceramics closely resemble those of the Birim Valley zone, suggesting shared technological traditions within a forest-based metallurgical economy.[29] Historians interpretAsantemanso as a proto-urban polity—a “technology of power” organizing production, labor, and ritual authority across the forest zone. Its spatial and social organization reflected a form of early statehood, in which ruling elites coordinated gold production, craft specialization, and ceremonial life.[30] Between 1200 and 1700, Asantemanso flourished as it served as both an industrial center and a ritual-political hub that mediated trade between thePra–Ofin goldfields and northern routes leading to the savanna.[4][29] From this base, a proto-Asante population expanded northward during the 15th century, founding new towns such as Kumase, Dwaben, Kokofu, and Kumawu. These towns inherited Asantemanso’s administrative and religious institutions, extending its influence into the heart of the forest region.[30]
By the late 16th century,Asantemanso had declined in size and political significance, though it remained a major cultural landmark. Oral traditions remember it as the original settlement of the Akan people and the birthplace of theAduana clan, who are said to have first emerged from the ground there, a belief still commemorated through annual rituals.[31]
A contemporary withAsantemanso,Adanse developed as a major early center ofAkan civilization in the forest region and is regarded as the ancestral homeland from which many of the southernAkan trace their origins.[32] The site ofAdansemanso, located about 30 kilometers south of Kumasi, served as the first political and ritual capital of the state in theAdanse–Amansie region and is associated with the formation of early Akan states.[33]Archaeological investigations revealed continuous occupation from at least the 9th centuryCE, with evidence suggesting even earlier phases of settlement beginning around 393CE, and the site reached its peak in architectural and socio-economic development between the 13th and 15th centuriesCE.[34][35]
During this period functioned as one of the earliestAkan city-states, where elites organized production, trade, and ritual authority through a hierarchical political structure.[36] According toOsei Tutu Agyeman Prempeh II, the Adanse were the most enlightened and powerful of the early tribes, remembered for their role in establishing the first organized kingship in the region.[37] Oral traditions identify it as both a spiritual and cultural origin for the Akan, remembered as the first of the five great Akan states (Akanman Piesie Num), together withAkyem,Assin,Denkyira, and Asante.[38] In Akan cosmology, it is said to be the place where Odomankoma (God) began creation and where institutions such as kingship and clan identity (abusua) first took root.[39]
By the 15th and 16th centuries, Adanse region had become the ancestral homeland of many Akan ruling lineages. TheAgona ofDenkyira originally occupied the region stretching from Asokwa westward of Obuase and Akrofuom to the confluence of the Oda and the Ofe rivers. TheAsona, who later foundedEjisu (Edweso) andOffinso in Asante and alsoAkyem Abuakwa, traced descent fromKokobiante. TheAssin Atandasu, theAsona ofKingdom of Assin, the Afutuakwa of Fosu, and the Aboabo of Assin Nyankomase traced their origins to the Pra–Kusa range. TheBretuo ofMampon andKwahu, theOyoko of Abadwum andEdubiase, and the Ekouna ofFomena also claimed Adanse as their homeland.[9]
In the early 1500s, a reference to the Akan peoples appears in the work ofDuarte Pacheco Pereira (1505–1508), who listed theHaccanys among the principal gold-trading groups of the Guinea coast, alongside the Bremus, Atis,Boroes, andMadinguas.[40] By Portuguese sources mentioned envoys and rulers identified as “Kings of Akan,” and by 1548 referred to internal wars among them, indicating that “Akan” already described a politically and economically organized region rather than a single state.[41]
Historians interpret the names Accany, Akani, and Arcania found inPortuguese,Dutch, and English records as geo-political designations for the Akan heartland, encompassing the principalTwi-speaking regions of theGold Coast.[41] This area lay north ofFante, Agona, and Etsi, west ofKwahu andAkwamu, and south ofBono andWenchi, corresponding broadly to theOfin–Pra–Birim basin of present-dayAsante,Asante Akyem, andAkyem Abuakwa.[41] From this region—rich in gold deposits and densely settled by Akan-speaking communities—traders known to Europeans as Accanists exported gold and other commodities to coastal markets such asElmina andKormantine.[42] By the 16th century, the Akani merchants controlled the bulk of the Gold Coast’s gold trade, selling about two-thirds of all gold exported annually by Europeans.[43]
Some historians described the Akani as a confederation of Akan polities bound by kinship and trade, centered in thePra–Ofin basin aroundAdanse, which formed the political and commercial core ofArcania.[7][8] It referred broadly to a collective of Akan-speaking peoples, which included the ancestors ofAkyem,Kwahu,Asante,Denkyira, and theAssin states of Apemanim and Attandansu, who served as intermediaries between the inland goldfields and coastal markets. Their origins and migrations traced back to theOfin,Pra, andBirim valleys, particularly to theAdanse region.[7] Some historians identified Akan (or Arcania) as a centralized kingdom which comprised all of Adanse, extending toAssin in the south, parts ofAkyem to the east andDenkyira to the west,[44] while others, such asKea, viewed Accany (Akani) as a trading society organized around merchant guilds and caravans rather than territorial rule, whose merchants dominated the gold routes linking the interior to coastal markets likeElmina andWinneba.[45]
The fragmentation of Akani and the wider Akan heartland arose from a mixture of succession disputes, commercial rivalries, and struggles for political dominance among ruling clans.[7][44] As trade wealth concentrated in the hands of Assin and Denkyira elites, disputes over control of tolls, markets, and caravan routes weakened the confederation’s cohesion.[10] Akyem Abuakwa trace's the source of the conflicts to the death ofAwurade Basa, the king ofAdanse and the creator of theAfenakwa sword, a key symbol of centralized political authority in the region.[46] The disintegration of Adanse’s political unity weakened the confederation’s cohesion and prompted the migration of numerousAkan lineages. Some, such as theAkyem, moved eastward across thePra, while others, including the ancestors of theAsante people, moved northward from theAmansie andKumasi areas.[9] Migrations intensified after 1629 with the rise ofDenkyira, whose kings, Werempe-Ampem and laterBoaponsem, expanded through military dominance and control of the gold trade.[47][10] Denkyira’s rise disrupted Akani’s internal trade networks and absorbed many of its former territories, contributing to the breakup of the Akani confederation.[48][8] Oral traditions attribute these shifts to dynastic disputes, population growth, and land shortages, while external pressures included Denkyira’s expansion and the growing influence ofAkyem and theAkwamu.[49]
The early Asante union formed around a nucleus of theOyoko clan expanding out ofAsantemanso, whose offshoot communities clustered within about 30 miles of present-dayKumasi before consolidating into a stronger union. Able leaders including Twum (or Antwi), Kobia Amanfi (1621–1643), guided this early process of state formation.[50] By the mid-17th century, intensified migration fromAdanse occurred as severalAkan clans including theOyoko,Asona, andBretuo moved northward due to military pressure from theDenkyira. Among the final groups to leave was theOyoko clan, whose leader,Oti Akenten, settled atKwaman, a strategic forest settlement located in what is now centralAsante.[51][52] UnderOti Akenten’s leadership, theOyoko began consolidating nearby clans into a loose confederation, laying the groundwork for the future Asante state.[53]
Around 1680, leadership of the growing Asante union passed toNana Obiri Yeboa, who continued the process of political consolidation. His death in battle with theDormaa prompted a retaliatory campaign led by his successor,Osei Tutu I.[54]During his rise to power,Osei Tutu reportedly sought refuge at the court ofAkwamuheneNana Ansa Sasraku I while evading Denkyira control.[55] It was in Akwamu that he encounteredOkomfo Anokye, with whom he later returned toKumasi. Akwamu's prestige and regional influence during this period made it a key site for political asylum and strategic alliances.
This conflict alarmed their overlord,DenkyiraheneNtim Gyakari, who demanded heavy tribute to maintain peace. When the Asante refused, war broke out around 1698.[56] The ensuing struggle led directly to the unification of Asante states underOsei Tutu and his spiritual advisorOkomfo Anokye, culminating in the creation ofthe Golden Stool and the formal foundation of the Asante Confederacy.[57]
According to legend, a meeting of all the clan heads of each of the Asante settlements was called just prior to declaring independence from Denkyira. Those included members from Nsuta, Mampong, Dwaben, Bekwai and Kokofu.[16] In this meeting theGolden Stool (Sika dwa) was commanded down from the heavens by Okomfo Anokye, chief-priest or sage advisor toAsantehene Osei Tutu I and floated down from the heavens into his lap. OkomfoAnokye declared the stool to be symbolic of the new Ashanti Union (the Ashanti Kingdom) and allegiance was sworn to the stool and to Osei Tutu as theAsantehene.[58] The stool remains sacred to the Asante as it is believed to contain theSunsum — spirit or soul of the Asante people.
Otumfuo Osei Kofi Tutu I and his chief advisor, Okomfo Kwame FrimpongAnokye led a coalition of Asante city-states against theDenkyira. The Asante defeated them at theBattle of Feyiase, proclaiming their independence in 1701. Through force of arms and diplomacy, the duo induced the leaders of the other Asante city-states to declare allegiance and adherence to Kumasi. From the beginning, Otumfuo Osei Tutu and OkomfoAnokye followed an expansionist and an imperialistic provincial foreign policy. According to folklore, Okomfo Anokye is believed to have visitedAgona-Akrofonso.[59]
Realizing the strengths of a loose confederation of Akan states, Osei Tutu strengthened centralization of the surrounding Akan groups and expanded the powers of the judiciary system within the centralized government. This loose confederation of small city-states grew into a kingdom and eventually an empire looking to expand its borders. Newly conquered areas had the option of joining the empire or becoming tributary states.[60]Opoku Ware I, Osei Tutu's successor, extended the borders, embracing much of Ghana's territory.[61]
Between 1700 and 1715, Osei Tutu I conquered the neighboring states ofTwifo,Wassa andAowin. Opoku Ware I, who succeeded Osei Tutu, led the integration of Akan states such asBonoman,Gyaman,Akyem andKwahu into Asante after embarking on wars of conquest between 1720 and 1750. After the conquest of the Akyem in 1742, the Asante exerted power unto the coast. From 1730 to 1770, the Asante Empire expanded north into the Savannah states ofGonja,Dagbon and Krakye.[62] Some scholars, however, have argued that "claims of Asante dominance over Dagbon in the precolonial era have been greatly exaggerated."[63]
In 1806, the Asante pursued two rebel leaders through Fante territory to the coast. The British refusal to surrender the rebels led to an Asante attack. This was devastating enough that the British handed over a rebel; the other escaped.[64] In 1807 disputes with theFante led to theAshanti–Fante War, in which the Asante were victorious under Asantehene Osei Bonsu ("Bonsu, the whale"). In the 1811Ga–Fante War, a coalition of Asante and Ga fought against an alliance of Fante, Akwapim and Akim states. The Asante war machine was successful in defeating the alliance in open combat pushing their enemies towards the Akwapim hills. Asante however abandoned their campaign of pursuit after capturing a British fort and establishing their presence and authority on the coast.[citation needed] By 1816, the Asante had absorbed theFante Confederacy.[65][66]
In 1814 the Asante launched an invasion of the Gold Coast, largely to gain access to European traders. In theAshanti–Akim–Akwapim War, the empire faced the Akim–Akwapim alliance. After several battles, the out numbered Akim–Akwapim alliance were defeated and became tributories to the Asantes. The Asante was established from the midlands down to the coast.[citation needed]
On May 15, 1817, the EnglishmanThomas Bowdich entered Kumasi. He remained there for several months, was impressed, and on his return to England wrote a book,Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee.[67] His praise of the kingdom was disbelieved as it contradicted prevailing prejudices.Joseph Dupuis, the first British consul in Kumasi, arrived on March 23, 1820. Both Bowdich and Dupuis secured a treaty with the Asantehene, but the governor, Hope Smith, did not meet Ashanti expectations.[68]
From 1824 till 1899 there were fiveAnglo-Ashanti wars between the Asante Empire and Great Britain and its allies. The wars were mainly due to Asante attempts to establish a stronghold over the coastal areas of present-day Ghana. Coastal peoples such as theFante and theGa came to rely on British protection against Asante incursions.
The first of theAnglo-Ashanti wars occurred in 1823. In these conflicts, the Asante empire faced off, with varying degrees of success, against the British Empire residing on the coast. The root of the conflict traces back to 1823 when SirCharles MacCarthy, resisting all overtures by the Asante to negotiate, led an invading force. The Asante defeated this, killed MacCarthy, took his head for a trophy and swept on to the coast. However, disease forced them back. The Asante were so successful in subsequent fighting that in 1826 they again moved on the coast. The Asante were stopped about 15 kilometres (10 mi) north of Accra by a British led force. They fought against superior numbers of British allied forces, including Denkyirans until the novelty of British rockets caused the Asante army to flee.[69] In 1831, a treaty led to 30 years of peace, with thePra River accepted as the border.
With the exception of a few Asante light skirmishes across the Pra in 1853 and 1854, the peace between the Asante and British Empire had remained unbroken for over 30 years. Then, in 1863, a large Asante delegation crossed the river pursuing a fugitive, Kwesi Gyana. There was fighting, casualties on both sides, but the governor's request for troops from England was declined and sickness forced the withdrawal of his West Indian troops. The war ended in 1864 as a stalemate with both sides losing more men to sickness than any other factor.
In 1869 a European missionary family was taken to Kumasi. They were hospitably welcomed and were used as an excuse for war in 1873. Also, Britain took control of Asante land claimed by the Dutch. The Asante invaded the new British protectorate.General Wolseley and his famousWolseley ring were sent against the Asante. This was a modern war, replete with press coverage (including by the renowned reporterHenry Morton Stanley) and printed precise military and medical instructions to the troops.[70] The British government refused appeals to interfere with British armaments manufacturers who were unrestrained in selling to both sides.[71]
All Asante attempts at negotiations were disregarded. Wolseley took 2,500 British troops and several thousand West Indian and African troops to Kumasi. It arrived in Kumasi in January 1896 along a route cleared by an advance contingent under the command ofRobert Baden-Powell.[72][73] The capital was briefly occupied. The British were impressed by the size of the palace and the scope of its contents, including "rows of books in many languages."[74] The Asante had abandoned the capital after a bloody war. The British burned it.[75]
The British and their allies suffered considerable casualties in the war losing numerous soldiers and high ranking army officers, but in the end the firepower was too much to overcome for the Asante.[76] The Asantehene (the king of the Asante) signed a British treaty in July 1874 to end the war.
In 1895, the Asante turned down an unofficial offer to become a British protectorate.
The Asante wanting to keep French and European colonial forces out of the territory (and its gold), the British were anxious to conquer Asante Empire once and for all. Despite being in talks with the state about making it a British protectorate, Britain began theFourth Anglo-Ashanti War in 1895 on the pretext of failure to pay the fines levied on the Asante monarch after the 1874 war. The British were victorious and the Asante was forced to sign a treaty and becameBritish protectorate.
In December 1895, the British leftCape Coast with an expeditionary force to start what is known as theThird Anglo-Ashanti War, seebelow. The Asantehene directed the Asante to not resist the British advance, as he feared reprisals from Britain if the expedition turned violent. Shortly thereafter, GovernorWilliam Maxwell arrived in Kumasi as well, wherePrempeh I was humiliated.[77]
Britainannexed the territories of the Asante and the Fanti and constituted theAshanti Crown Colony on 26 September 1901.[11] Asantehene Agyeman Prempeh was deposed and arrested, and he and other Asante leaders were sent into exile in theSeychelles. The Asante Union was dissolved.[78] ABritish Resident was permanently placed in the city of Kumasi, and soon after a British fort was built there.[79]
As a final measure of resistance, the remaining Asante court not exiled to the Seychelles mounted an offensive against the British Residents at the Kumasi Fort. The resistance was led by Asante queenYaa Asantewaa, Queen-Mother of Ejisu. From March 28 to late September 1900, the Asante and British were engaged in what would become known as theWar of the Golden Stool. In the end, the British were victorious; they exiled Asantewaa and other Asante leaders to the Seychelles to join Asante King Prempeh I.
In 1935, the British restored the Asante Confederacy under British colonial rule, allowing the Asantehene to govern Asante's internal affairs, though the region remained under British control. Upon Ghana's independence in 1957, the Asante Kingdom became part of the new nation. While the Asantehene's traditional authority was restored, the Asante Kingdom was integrated into Ghana, rather than entering a formal political union.
The Asante state was a centralized state made up of a hierarchy of heads starting from the "Abusua Panyin" who was head of a family or lineage. The family was the basic political unit in the empire. The family or lineage followed the village organization which was headed by theOdikro. All villages were then grouped together to form divisions headed by a divisional head calledOhene. The various divisions were politically grouped to form a state which was headed by anOmanhene orAmanhene. Finally, all Asante states formed the Asante Empire with the Asantehene as their king.[80]
The Asante government was built upon a sophisticatedbureaucracy in Kumasi, with separateministries to handle the state's affairs.[81] Of particular note was Asante's Foreign Office based in Kumasi; despite its small size, it allowed the state to pursue complex negotiations with foreign powers. The Office was divided into departments to handle relations separately with theBritish,French,Dutch, andArabs. Scholars of Ashanti history, such asLarry Yarak andIvor Wilks, disagree over the power of this sophisticated bureaucracy in comparison to the Asantehene, but agree that it was a sign of a highly developed government with a complex system ofchecks and balances.
At the top of Asante's power structure sat theAsantehene, the King of Asante. Each Asantahene was enthroned on the sacred Golden Stool, the Sika 'dwa, an object that came to symbolise the very power of the King. Osei Kwadwo (r. 1764–1777) began themeritocratic system of appointing central officials according to their ability, rather than their birth.[82]
As King, theAsantehene held immense power in Asante, but did not enjoyabsolute royal rule.[83][84] He was obliged to share considerable legislative and executive powers with Asante's sophisticated bureaucracy. But theAsantehene was the only person in Asante permitted to invoke thedeath sentence in cases of crime. During wartime, the King acted as Supreme Commander of theAsante army, although during the 19th century, the fighting was increasingly handled by the Ministry of War in Kumasi. Each member of the confederacy was also obliged to send annual tribute to Kumasi.
TheAsantehene (King of all Asante) reigned over all and was King of the division of Kumasi, the nation's capital, and the Asante Empire. He was elected in the same manner as all other chiefs. In this hierarchical structure, every chief or King swore fealty to the one above him—from village and subdivision, to division, to the chief of Kumasi, and finally theAsantehene swore fealty to theState.[16]
Theelders circumscribed the power of theAsantehene, and the chiefs of other divisions considerably checked the power of the King. This in practical effect created a system of checks and balances. As the symbol of the nation, theAsantehene received significant deference ritually, for the context was religious in that he was a symbol of the people in the flesh: the living, dead or yet to be born. When the king committed an act not approved of by the counsel of elders or the people, he could possibly beimpeached, and demoted to a commoner.[83]
The existence ofaristocratic organizations and thecouncil of elders is evidence of anoligarchic tendency in Asante political life. These men tended tomonopolize political power around themselves into both "war" parties and "peace" parties.[85]
The current residence of the Asantehene is theManhyia Palace built in 1925 by the British and presented to thePrempeh I as a present upon his return from exile. The original palace of the Asantehene in Kumasi was burned down by the British in 1874. From European accounts, the edifice was massive and ornately built. In 1819, English traveler and author,Thomas Edward Bowdich described thepalace complex as[86]
...an immense building of a variety of oblong courts and regular squares [with]entablatures exuberantly adorned with bold fan and trellis work of Egyptian character. They have a suite of rooms over them, with small windows of wooden lattice, of intricate but regular carved work, and some have frames cased with thin gold. The squares have a large apartment on each side, open in front, with two supporting pillars, which break the view and give it all the appearance of the proscenium or front of the stage of the older Italian theaters. They are lofty and regular, and the cornices of a very bold cane-work in alto-relievo. A drop-curtain of curiously plaited cane is suspended in front, and in each, we observed chairs and stools embossed with gold, and beds of silk, with scattered regalia.[87]
Winwood Reade also described his visit to the Asante Royal Palace of Kumasi in 1874:"We went to the king's palace, which consists of many courtyards, each surrounded with alcoves and verandahs, and having two gates or doors, so that each yard was a thoroughfare . . . But the part of the palace fronting the street was a stone house, Moorish in its style . . . with a flat roof and a parapet, and suites of apartments on the first floor. It was built by Fanti masons many years ago. The rooms upstairs remind me of Wardour Street. Each was a perfect Old Curiosity Shop. Books in many languages, Bohemian glass, clocks, silver plate, old furniture, Persian rugs, Kidderminster carpets, pictures and engravings, numberless chests and coffers. A sword bearing the inscription From Queen Victoria to the King of Ashantee. A copy of the Times, 17 October 1843. With these were many specimens of Moorish and Ashanti handicraft."[88]
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_p341_PLATE_7_-_COOMASSIE%2c_PART_OF_A_PIAZZA_IN_THE_PALACE.jpg)
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This institution assisted the Asantehene and served as an advisory body to the king. The council was made up ofAmanhene or paramount chiefs who were leaders of the various Asante states. The council also included other provincial chiefs. By law the Asantehene never ignored the decisions of the Asanteman council. Doing so could get him de-stooled from the throne.[89][80]
The Asante Empire was made up of metropolitan and provincial states. The metropolitan states were made up of Asante citizens known asamanfo. The provincial states were other kingdoms absorbed into the empire. Every metropolitan Asante state was headed by theAmanhene or paramount chief. Each of these paramount chiefs served as principal rulers of their own states, where they exerted executive, legislative and judicial powers.[89]
TheOhene is a male representative of his mother's family, where he is chosen from. TheOhene were divisional chiefs under the Amanhene. Their major function was to advise the Amanhene. The divisional chiefs were the highest order in various Asante state divisions. The divisions were made up of various villages put together. Examples of divisional chiefs included Krontihene, Nifahene, Benkumhene, Adontenhene and Kyidomhene.[89]
Each village in Asante had a chief called Odikro who was the owner of the village. The Odikro was responsible for the maintenance of law and order. He also served as a medium between the people of his jurisdiction, the ancestor and the gods. As the head of the village, the Odikro presided over the village council.[89][80]
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The queen orOhenemaa was an important figure in Asante political systems. She was the most powerful female in the Empire, because the Ohene represents her or her family and is either her son or her sister's son. She has the power to be King, if she desires but would rather see her son or her maternal nephew(which is also considered her 2nd child in African culture). She had the prerogative of being consulted in the process of installing a chief or the king, as she played a major role in the nomination and selection. She settled disputes involving women and was involved in decision-making alongside the Council of elders and chiefs.[89] Not only did she participate in the judicial and legislative processes, but also in the making and unmaking of war, and the distribution of land.[90]
Successful entrepreneurs who accumulated large wealth and men as well as distinguished themselves through heroic deeds were awarded social and political recognition by being called "Abirempon" or "Obirempon" which means big men. By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries AD, the appellation "Abirempon" had formalized and politicized to embrace those who conducted trade from which the whole state benefited. The state rewarded entrepreneurs who attained such accomplishments with Mena (elephant tail) which was the "heraldic badge"[91]Obirempons had a fair amount of legislative power in their regions, more than the local nobles of Dahomey but less than the regional governors of the Oyo Empire. In addition to handling the region's administrative and economic matters, theobirempon also acted as the Supreme Judge of their jurisdiction, presiding over court cases.
The Kotoko was a government council in the Asante government. Politically, the kotoko council served as the counterweight to the king's council of elders and basically embodied the aristocratic party in the government. The council formed the Legislature of Asante governmental system.[1] It was made up of the Asantehene, the Queen mother as well as the state chiefs and their ministers.
Theelection of Kings and the Asantehene (King of Kings or emperor ) himself followed a pattern. The senior female of the kingly lineage nominated the eligible males. This senior female then consulted the elders, male and female, of that line. The final candidate is then selected. That nomination was sent to a council of elders, who represented other lineages in thetown ordistrict.[citation needed]
The Elders then presented the nomination to the assembled people. If the assembledcitizens disapproved of the nominee, the process was restarted.[92] Chosen, the new Kings were enstooled by the Elders, who admonished him with expectations. The chosen Kings swore a solemn oath to the Earth Goddess and to his ancestors to fulfill his duties honorably in which he"sacrificed" himself and his life for the betterment of the state.[citation needed]
This elected and enstooled King enjoyed a great majesticceremony with much spectacle and celebration. He reigned with muchdespotic power, including the ability to make judgments of life and death on his subjects. However, he did not enjoyabsolute rule. Upon the stool, the King was sacred. He served as the holy intermediary between the people and the ancestors. His powers theoretically were more apparent than real and hinged on his attention to the advice and decisions of the Council of Elders.[citation needed]
Kings of the Asante Empire who violated any of theoaths taken during his or her enstoolment, were destooled by Kingmakers.[93] For instance, if a king punished citizens arbitrarily or was exposed as corrupt, he would be destooled. Destoolment entailed kingmakers removing the sandals of the king and bumping his buttocks on the ground three times. Once destooled from office, his sanctity and thus reverence were lost, as he could not exercise any of the powers he had as king; this includes Chief administrator, Judge, and Military Commander. The now previous king was dispossessed of the Stool, swords and otherregalia which symbolized his office and authority. He also lost his position as custodian of the land. However, even if destooled from office, the king remained a member of the royal family from which he was elected.[93] An impeachment occurred during the reign ofKusi Obodom, caused by afailed invasion of Dahomey.[94]
TheAsantehene was assisted by a civil service of men talented intrade,diplomacy, and themilitary, with a head called theGyaasehene. Men from theArabian Peninsula,Sudan, andEurope were employed in the Asante empirecivil service; all of whom were appointed by theAsantehene.[95]
The Asante invented theFontomfrom, an Asantetalking drum, and they also invented theAkan Drum. They drummed messages to distances of over 300 kilometres (200 mi), as rapidly as atelegraph.Asante dialect (Twi) andAkan, the language of theAsante people is tonal and more meaning is generated by tone. The drums reproduced these tones, punctuations, and the accents of a phrase so that the cultivated ear heard the entirety of the phrase itself.
The Asante readily heard and understood the phrases produced by these "talking drums". Standard phrases called for meetings of the chiefs or to arms, warned of danger, and broadcast announcements of the death of important figures. Some drums were used forproverbs and ceremonial presentations.[96]
Although pre-literate, the Asante recruited literate individuals into its government to increase the efficiency of the state's diplomacy. Some written records were also kept.[97][98] Historian Adjaye, gives estimates based on surviving letters by the Asante that documents from the Asante government "could have exceeded several thousands."[98] Writing was also used in record keeping duringcourt proceedings. Bowdich documented in the early nineteenth century about the "trial of Apea Nyano" on 8 July 1817 where he states that "theMoorish secretaries were there to take notes of the transactions of the day." Wilks adds that such transcripts have not survived today.[99]
Before the 19th century,couriers were trained to memorize the exact contents of the verbal message and by the 19th century, the Asante government relied on writing for diplomacy. In the 1810s, it was common for couriers to be deployed withdespatch boxes.[100] For Wilks, evidence exists on the use of mounted couriers during the reign ofKwaku Dua I around the Metropolitan districts. He cites a case In 1841 whenFreeman documented the arrival of a party of messengers sent by the Asantehene toKaase. The chief of these messengers "rode on a strong Asante pony, with an Arabic or Moorishsaddle andbridle." Wilks argues the tsetse fly nullified the extensive use of horses to speed communications.[101]
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Okomfo Anokye was responsible for creating theSeventy-Seven Laws of Komfo Anokye which served as thecodified constitution of the Ashanti Empire.[104][105][106]
The Asante state, in effect, was atheocracy. It invokes religious, rather thansecular-legal postulates. What the modern state views ascrimes, Ashanti view practically assins. Antisocial acts disrespect the ancestors, and are only secondarily harmful to thecommunity. If the chief orKing fails to punish such acts, he invokes the anger of the ancestors and the gods, and is therefore in danger ofimpeachment. The penalty for some crimes (sins) is death, but this is seldom imposed; a more common penalty isbanishment orimprisonment.[citation needed] The King typically exacts orcommutes allcapital cases. These commuted sentences by King and chiefs sometimes occur byransom orbribe; they are regulated in such a way that they should not be mistaken forfines, but are considered asrevenue to the state, which for the most part welcomesquarrels andlitigation.Commutations tend to be far more frequent thanexecutions.[citation needed]
Asante are repulsed bymurder, andsuicide is considered murder. They decapitate those who commit suicide, the conventional punishment for murder. The suicide thus had contempt for the court, for only the King may kill an Asante.[citation needed]
In amurdertrial, intent must be established. If thehomicide is accidental, the murderer pays compensation to the lineage of the deceased. Theinsane cannot be executed because of the absence of responsible intent – except for murder or cursing the King; in the case of cursing the king, drunkenness is a valid defense.Capital crimes include murder,incest within the female or male line, and intercourse with amenstruating woman,rape of a married woman, andadultery with any of the wives of a chief or the King.Assaults or insults of a chief or thecourt or the King also carriedcapital punishment.[citation needed]
Cursing the King, calling down powers to harm the King, is considered an unspeakable act and carries the weight ofdeath. One who invokes another to commit such an act must pay a heavy indemnity. Practitioners of harmful (evil) forms ofsorcery and witchcraft receive death but not by decapitation, for their blood must not be shed. They receive execution by strangling, burning, or drowning.[citation needed]
Ordinarily, families or lineages settle disputes between individuals. Nevertheless, such disputes can be brought totrial before a chief by uttering thetaboo oath of a chief or the King. In the end, theKing's Court is the sentencing court, for only the King can order thedeath penalty. Before the Council of Elders and the King's Court, the litigants orate comprehensively. Anyone present can cross-examine the defendant or the accuser, and if the proceedings do not lead to averdict, a special witness is called to provide additionaltestimony. If there is only one witness, their sworn oath assures the truth is told. Moreover, that he favours or is hostile to either litigant is unthinkable. Cases with no witness, like sorcery or adultery are settled by ordeals, like drinkingpoison.[citation needed]
Ancestor Veneration establishes the Asantemoral system, and it provides the principal foundation forgovernmental sanctions. The link between mother and child centres the entire network, which includes ancestors and fellow men as well. Itsjudicial system emphasizes the Asante conception of rectitude and goodbehaviour, which favours harmony among the people. The rules were made byNyame (SupremeGod) and the ancestors, and one must behave accordingly.[citation needed]
In the metropolitan areas of Asante, severalpolice forces were responsible for maintaining law and order. In Kumasi, a uniformed police, who were distinguished by their long hair, maintained order by ensuring no one else entered and left the city without permission from the government.[107] Theankobia orspecial police were used as the empire'sspecial forces andbodyguards to the Asantehene, as sources ofintelligence, and to suppress rebellion.[95] For most of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the Asantesovereign state remained powerful.[108]
The Asante Empire was one of a series of states along the coast including Dahomey,Benin, andOyo. The Asante had mountains and largeagricultural surpluses.[12] The southern part of the Asante Empire was covered with moist semi-deciduous forest whilst theGuinea savanna covered the northern part of the state. The Guinea Savanna consists of short deciduous and fire resistant trees.Riparian forests also occur along theAfram River and streams of the savanna zone. Soils in Asante were mainly of two types;forest ochrosols in the southern part of Asante whilst thesavanna ochrosols were confined to northern part of the empire.[12]
The predominantfauna or food rich wildlife and animal species encountered in the Asante Empire were thehen,sheep,goat,duck,turkey,rabbit,guinea fowl,fish, and theporcupine which became the national emblem of the state, as well as about thirty multipurposeflora species of trees andshrubs and over thirty-five ornamental plants which beautified the environs of Asante. These tree/shrub-crop-animal (hen/fish) components were intensively integrated spatially and/or sequentially on the same land unit of individual Asante houses.[12]
The lands within the Asante Kingdom were also rich in river-gold,cocoa andkola nuts, and the Asante were soon trading with thePortuguese at coastal fortSao Jorge da Mina, laterElmina, and with theHausa states.[16]
The Asante prepared the fields by burning before the onset of the rainy season and cultivated with an ironhoe. Fields are left fallow for a couple years, usually after two to four years of cultivation. Plants cultivated includeplantains,yams,manioc,corn,sweet potatoes,millet,beans,onions,peanuts,tomatoes, and manyfruits. Manioc and corn are New World transplants introduced during theAtlantic European trade. Many of thesevegetable crops could be harvested twice a year and thecassava (manioc), after a two-year growth, provides a starchy root.The Asante transformedpalm wine, maize and millet intobeer, a favourite drink; and made use of the oil from palm for many culinary and domestic uses.[95][19]
Infrastructure throughout the empire included a network of well-keptroads from the Asante mainland to theNiger river and other trade cities.[95][19] Stationed at various points of Asante roads were theNkwansrafo or road wardens who served as the highway police; checking the movement of traders and strangers on all roads. They were also responsible for scouting and were charged with the collection oftolls from traders.[109]
In the early 19th century larger rivers were either forded in the dry season or crossed by canoe or line-and-raft ferries. Smaller rivers were either waded, or were bridged by a tree trunk: in both cases a ropehandrail was usually stretched across the river to assist the traveller. In response to the delivery of a carriage byThomas Freeman in 1841, the Asante Empire began to buildbridges across water bodies for transport that year.[110] AsanteheneKwaku Dua ordered proper bridges to be built across streams in the metropolitan area of Kumase. Thomas Freeman described the construction as:
Some stout, forked sticks or posts are driven in the centre of the stream at convenient distances, across which are placed some strong beams, fastened to the posts with withes, from the numerous climbing plants on every hand. On these bearers are placed long stout poles which are covered with earth from fourth to six inches thick....
— Freeman.[110]
English visitors to Kumasi in the 19th century, noted the division of the capital into 77 wards with 27 main streets; one of which was 100 yards wide. Many houses especially those near the king's palace were two story buildings embodied with indoorplumbing in the form of toilets that were flushed with gallons of boiling water.[111] Bowdich revealed in his 1817 account that all streets of Kumasiwere named.[112][113]
The population history of the Asante Kingdom was one of slow centralization. In the early 19th century the Asantehene used the annual tribute to set up a permanent standing army armed withrifles, which allowed much closer control of the Asante kingdom. The Asante kingdom was one of the most centralised states in sub-Saharan Africa. Osei Tutu and his successors oversaw a policy of political and cultural unification and the union had reached its full extent by 1750. It remained an alliance of several large city-states which acknowledged the sovereignty of the ruler of Kumasi and the Asante kingdom, known as the Asantehene. The Asante kingdom had a dense population of approximately 3 million people, allowing the creation of substantialurban centres across an area of over 250,000 square kilometers.[12]
The Asante armies served the empire well, supporting its long period of expansion and subsequent resistance to European colonization.
Armament was primarily with firearms, but some historians hold that indigenous organization and leadership probably played a more crucial role in Asante successes.[114] These are, perhaps, more significant when considering that the Asante had numerous troops from conquered or incorporated peoples, and faced a number of revolts and rebellions from these peoples over its long history. The political genius of the symbolic "golden stool" and the fusing effect of a national army however, provided the unity needed to keep the empire viable. Total potential strength was some 80,000 to 200,000, making the Asante army bigger than the well known Zulu, and comparable to possibly Africa's largest – the legions of Ethiopia.[114] The Asante army was described as a fiercely organized one whose king could "bring 200,000 men into the field and whose warriors were evidently not cowed bySnider rifles and 7-pounder guns"[115]While actual forces deployed in the field were less thanpotential strength, tens of thousands of soldiers were usually available to serve the needs of the empire. Mobilization depended on small cadres of regulars, who guided and directed levees and contingents called up from provincial governors.
Organization was structured around an advance guard, main body, rear guard and two right and left wing flanking elements. This provided flexibility in the forest country the Asante armies typically operated in. Horses were known to survive in Kumasi but because they could not survive in the tsetse fly-infested forest zone in the south, there was no cavalry. Asante high-ranking officers rode horses with the hauteur of European officers but they did not ride to battle.[116] The approach to the battlefield was typically via converging columns, and tactics included ambushes and extensive maneuvers on the wings. Unique among African armies, the Asante deployed medical units to support their fighters. This force was to expand the empire substantially and continually for over a century, and defeated the British in several encounters.[114]
Brass barrel blunderbuss were produced in some states in the Gold Coast including the Asante Empire around the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Various accounts indicate that Asante blacksmiths were not only able to repair firearms, but that barrels, locks and stocks were on occasion remade.[117]
Standing among families was largely political. The royal family typically topped the hierarchy, followed by the families of thechiefs of territorial divisions. In eachchiefdom, a particular female line provides the chief. A committee of several men eligible for the post elects the chief. The typical Asante family wasextended andmatrilineal.[118] A mother's brother was the legal guardian of her children. The father on the other hand had fewer legal responsibilities for his children with the exception of ensuring their well-being. Women also had the right to initiatedivorce whiles the husband had some legal rights over his wife such as the right to cut off her nose for adultery.[119]
Prominent people wore silk. The ordinary Asante wore cotton whiles slaves dressed in black cloth. Garments signalled the rank of the wearer in society and its colour expressed different meanings. White was worn by ordinary people after winning a court case. Dark colours were worn for funerals or mourning.[120] Laws existed to restrict certain Kente designs to the nobility. Some cotton or silk patterns on the Kente were designed solely for the king and could only be worn with his permission.[120]
Education in the Asante Kingdom was conducted by Asante and imported scholars and Asante people would often attend schools in Europe for theirhigher education.[citation needed]
Tolerant parents are typical among the Asante. Childhood is considered a happy time and children cannot be responsible for their actions. The child is not responsible for their actions until afterpuberty. A child is harmless and there is no worry for the control of theirsoul, the original purpose of allfuneral rites, so the ritual funerals typically given to the deceased Asante are not as lavish for the children.[citation needed]
The Asante adored twins when they were born within theroyal family because they were seen as a sign of impending fortune. Ordinarily, boy twins joined the army and twin girls potential wives of the King. If the twins are a boy and girl, no particular career awaits them. Women who beartriplets are greatly honored because three is regarded as a lucky number. Specialrituals ensue for the third, sixth, and ninth child. The fifth child (unlucky five) can expect misfortune. Families with many children are well respected and barren women scoffed at.[citation needed]
The Asante usedAdinkra symbols in their daily society. The symbols were used as a form of decoration, logos, arts, sculpture and pottery.
The Asante heldpuberty rites only for females. Fathers instruct their sons without public observance. The privacy of boys was respected in the Asante kingdom. Asmenstruation approaches, a girl goes to her mother's house. When the girl's menstruation is disclosed, the mother announces the good news in the village beating an iron hoe with a stone. Old women come out and singBara (menstrual) songs.[citation needed]
Menstruating women suffered numerous restrictions. The Asante viewed them as ritually unclean. They did not cook for men, nor did they eat any food cooked for a man. If a menstruating woman entered the ancestral stool (shrine) house, she was arrested, and the punishment could result in death. If this punishment is not exacted, the Asante believe, the ghost of theancestors would strangle thechief. Menstruating women lived in special houses during their periods as they were forbidden to cross the threshold of men's houses. They swore nooaths and no oaths were sworn for or against them. They did not participate in any of theceremonial observances and did not visit anysacred places.[citation needed]
Sickness and death were major events in thekingdom. The ordinaryherbalist divined thesupernatural cause of the illness and treated it withherbal medicines.[citation needed]
People loathed being alone for long without someone available to perform this rite before the sick collapsed. The family dressed the deceased in their best clothes, and adorned them with packets of gold dust (money for the after-life), ornaments, and food for the journey "up the hill". The body was normally buried within 24 hours. Until that time the funeral party engage in dancing, drumming, shooting of guns, all accompanied by the wailing of relatives. This was done because the Asante typically believed that death was not something to be sad about, but rather a part of life. As the Asante believed in an after-life, families felt they would be reunited with their ancestors upon death. Funeral rites for the death of a king involved the whole kingdom and were a much more elaborate affair.[citation needed]
The greatest and most frequentceremonies of the Asante recalled the spirits of departed rulers with an offering of food and drink, asking their favour for the common good, called theAdae. The day before theAdae,Akan drums broadcast the approaching ceremonies. The stool treasurer gathers sheep and liquor that will be offered. The chief priest officiates theAdae in the stool house where the ancestors came. Thepriest offers each food and a beverage. The public ceremony occurs outdoors, where all the people joined the dancing. Minstrels chant ritual phrases; the talking drums extol the chief and the ancestors in traditional phrases. TheOdwera, the other large ceremony, occurs in September and typically lasted for a week or two. It is a time of cleansing of sin from society the defilement, and for the purification ofshrines of ancestors and the gods. After thesacrifice and feast of a blackhen—of which both the living and the dead share—a new year begins in which all are clean, strong, and healthy.[citation needed]
Slavery was historically a tradition in the Asante Empire, with slaves typically taken as captives from enemies in warfare. The Asante Empire was the largest slaveowning and slave trading state in the territory of today's Ghana during theAtlantic slave trade.[121] The welfare of their slaves varied from being able to acquire wealth and intermarry with the master's family to beingsacrificed in funeral ceremonies. The Asante believed that slaves would follow their masters into the afterlife. Slaves could sometimes own other slaves, and could also request a new master if the slave believed he or she was being severely mistreated.[122][123]
The modern-day Asante claim that slaves were seldom abused,[124] and that a person who abused a slave was held in high contempt bysociety. They defend the "humanity" of Asante slavery by noting that those slaves were allowed to marry.[59] If a master found a female slave desirable, he might marry her. He preferred such an arrangement to that of a free woman in a conventional marriage, because marriage to an enslaved woman allowed the children to inherit some of the father'sproperty and status[125]This favoured arrangement occurred primarily because of what some men considered their conflict with thematrilineal system. Under this kinship system, children were considered born into the mother's clan and took their status from her family.[citation needed] Generally her eldest brother served as mentor to her children, particularly for the boys. She was protected by her family.[citation needed] Some Asante men felt more comfortable taking a slave girl or pawn wife in marriage, as she would have noabusua (older male grandfather, father, uncle or brother) to intercede on her behalf when the couple argued. With an enslaved wife, the master and husband had total control of their children, as she had no kin in the community.[citation needed]
During the reign of Asantehene Osei Kwame Panyin (1777–1803), the sale of Asante citizens into slavery was banned. Wilks argues that the economy of Asante "was not one based upon slave-raiding for export purposes". He cites Asantehene Osei Bonsu's speech to Dupuis in 1820;
I cannot make war to catch slaves in the bush, like a thief. My ancestors never did so. But if I fight a king and kill him when he is insolent, then certainly I must have his gold, and his slaves, and the people are mine too. Do not White kings act like this?
— Osei Bonsu.
He also references Brodie Cruickshank, who wrote in 1853 that "The Ashantee wars are never undertaken expressly to supply this demand." Wilks writes that slaves were more important to the Asante economy in the form of domestic labor in the agricultural and industrial sector than for export in the Atlantic slave trade. Some historians such as Reid and Dalrymple-Smith have commented that the Asante economy did not depend on the Atlantic slave trade. Stilwell states that the Asante rulers traded in slaves but "also sought other economic options."
When the Kingdom of Asante was conquered by the British in 1896, the British assured the chiefs that they would be allowed to keep their slaves; Asante became a colony in 1901 and in 1902 it was made illegal to "compel or attempt the compel the services" or another person, but slavery was not explicitly abolished due to British fear that an abolition would cause "internal disorganization"; chattel slavery was formally banned in 1908, but the British authorities did not enforce the law until the 1920s.[126]
Asante Empire's involvement in gold, cloth and slave trades brought in abundant wealth and fostered rich artistic traditions.[127] During colonization, the British took many artifacts. In February 2024, some of these, on display in a U.S. museum, were returned to Ghana. The repatriation has been termed "the return of our souls" and activists hope that eventually all of the artifacts will be returned.[128]
The Asante traditional buildings are the only remnants of Asante architecture. Construction and design consisted of a timber framework filled up with clay andthatched with sheaves of leaves. The surviving designated sites areshrines, but there have been many other buildings in the past with the same architectural style.[129] These buildings served aspalaces andshrines as well as houses for the affluent.[130] The Asante Empire also builtmausoleums which housed the tombs of several Asante leaders.Generally, houses whether designed for human habitation or for thedeities, consisted of four separate rectangular single-room buildings set around an opencourtyard; the inner corners of adjacent buildings were linked by means of splayed screen walls, whose sides and angles could be adapted to allow for any inaccuracy in the initial layout. Typically, three of the buildings were completely open to the courtyard, while the fourth was partially enclosed, either by the door and windows, or by open-work screens flanking an opening.[131]
The Asante Empire has been depicted in a number of different works ofnonfiction, detailing the structure of the empire
The Asante Empire has been depicted in some historicalwar strategy video games, along with being characters in video games with origins from the area
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