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Asha (/ˈʌʃə/) orarta (/ˈɑːrtə/;Avestan:𐬀𐬴𐬀Aṣ̌a /Arta) is aZoroastrian concept with a complex and highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right' (or 'righteousness'), 'order' and 'right working'.[1][2] It is of cardinal importance[3] to Zoroastriantheology anddoctrine. In the moral sphere,aṣ̌a/arta represents what has been called "the decisive confessional concept of Zoroastrianism".[4] The opposite ofaṣ̌a isdruj (Avestan:𐬛𐬭𐬎𐬘,lit. 'deceit, falsehood').
ItsOld Persian equivalent isarta-.[c] InMiddle Iranian languages the term appears asard-.[a]
The word is also the proper name of the divinity Asha, theAmesha Spenta that is thehypostasis or "genius"[5] of "Truth" or "Righteousness". In theYounger Avesta, this figure is more commonly referred to asAsha Vahishta (Aṣ̌a Vahišta,Arta Vahišta), "Best Truth".[b] TheMiddle Persian descendant isAshawahist orArdwahisht;New PersianArdibehesht orOrdibehesht. In theGathas—the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism, thought to have been composed byZoroaster—it is seldom possible to distinguish between moral principle and the divinity. Later texts consistently use the 'Best' epithet when speaking of the Amesha Spenta; only once in the Gathas is 'best' an adjective ofaṣ̌a/arta. TheAshem Vohu, which is one of the most important prayers Zoroastrianism is dedicated to Asha.
Avestanaṣ̌a and itsVedic equivalentṛtá both derive fromProto-Indo-Iranian*Hṛtá- "truth",[6] which in turn continuesPIE*h₂r-to- "properly joined, right, true", from the root*h₂er.The word is attested inOld Persian asarta.
It is unclear whether theAvestan variation betweenaṣ̌a andarta is merely orthographical. Benveniste suggestedš was only a convenient way of writingrt and should not be considered phonetically relevant.[7] According to Gray,ṣ̌ is a misreading, representing – not /ʃ/ - but /rr/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing avoicelessr.[8] Miller suggested thatrt was restored when a scribe was aware of themorpheme boundary between the /r/ and /t/ (that is, whether the writer maintained the–ta suffix).[9][h]
Avestandruj, like itsVedic Sanskrit cousindruh, appears to derive from the PIE root*dhreugh, also continued in Persianدروغd[o]rūġ "lie", Welshdrwg "evil", and GermanTrug "fraud, deception".Old Norsedraugr andMiddle Irishairddrach mean "spectre, spook". The Sanskrit cognatedruh means "affliction, afflicting demon".[10]In Avestan,druj- has a secondary derivation, the adjectivedrəguuaṇt- (Young Avestandruuaṇt-), "partisan of deception, deceiver" for which the superlativedraojišta- and perhaps the comparativedraoj(ii)ah- are attested (Kellens, 2010, pp. 69 ff.).
Aṣ̌a "cannot be precisely rendered by some single word in another tongue"[1] but may be summarized as follows:
It is, first of all, 'true statement'. This 'true statement', because it is true, corresponds to an objective, material reality that embraces all of existence. Recognized in it is a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it.[11][j] "This cosmic [...] force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, 'la parole conforme', and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order."[12]
The correspondence between 'truth', reality and an all-encompassing cosmic principle is not far removed fromHeraclitus' conception ofLogos.[13]
Both Avestanaṣ̌a/arta and Vedicŗtá- are commonly translated as "truth" as this best reflects both the original meaning of the term as well as the opposition to their respectiveantonyms. The opposite of Avestanaṣ̌a/arta isdruj-, "lie." Similarly, the opposites of Vedicṛtá- areánṛta- anddruh, likewise "lie".
That "truth" is also what was commonly understood by the term as attested inGreek myth ofIsis and Osiris 47,Plutarch calls the divinity ΑλήθειαAletheia, "Truth."[15]
The adjective corresponding to the nounaṣ̌a/arta, "truth", is Avestanhaithya- (haiθiia-), "true", the opposite of which is alsodruj-. Avestanhaithya- derives fromIndo-Iranian*sātya that in turn derives fromIndo-European*h1s-ṇt- "being, existing". The Sanskritcognatesátya- means "true" in the sense of "really existing." This meaning is also preserved in Avestan, for instance in the expressionhaiθīm varəz, "to make true" as in "to bring to realization."[16]
Another meaning of "reality" may be inferred from the component parts of theaṣ̌a/arta: from (root)ŗ with asubstantivizing-ta suffix. The rootŗ corresponds to Old Avestanarəta- and Younger Avestan ərəta- "established", henceaṣ̌a/arta "that which is established."[7]
The synonymy ofaṣ̌a and "existence" overlaps with the stock identification of Ahura Mazda as the creator (of existence itself). Truth is existence (creation) inasmuch as falsehood is non-existence (uncreated, anti-created). Also, becauseaṣ̌a is everything thatdruj- is not (or vice versa), sinceaṣ̌a is,druj- is not.
This notion is already expressed in the Avesta itself, such as in the firstYasht, dedicated toAhura Mazda, in which the "fifth name is the whole good existence of Mazda, the seed of Asha" (Yasht 1.7). Similarly, in the mythology ofGandarəβa, the 'yellow-heeled' dragon of thedruj- that emerges from the deep to destroy the "living world (creation) of Aṣ̌a" (Yasht 19.41)
In the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism ("good thoughts, good words, good deeds"),Vohu Manah is active in good thoughts,Sraosha in good words and Aṣ̌a in good deeds. (Denkard 3.13-14). Aṣ̌a is thus "represented as active and effective."[17]
Subject to context,aṣ̌a/arta- is also frequently translated as "right working" or "[that which is] right". The word then (cf. Bartholomae's[18] andGeldner's[19] translations as German language "Recht") has the same range of meaning of "right" as in the English language: truth, righteousness, rightfulness, lawfullness, conformity, accord, order (cosmic order, social order, moral order).
These various meanings of "right" are frequently combined, such as "the inexorable law of righteousness,"[20] or as "the eternal fitness of things that are in accord with the divine order."[21]
As (the hypostasis of) regularity and "right working",aṣ̌a/arta- is present when Ahura Mazda fixed the course of the sun, the moon and the stars (Yasna 44.3), and it is throughaṣ̌a that plants grow (Yasna 48.6).
"Right working" also overlaps with both Indo-European*ár- "to (properly) join together" and with the notion of existence and realization (to make real). The word for "established",arəta-, also means "proper". The antonymicanarəta- (oranarəθa-) means "improper".[22] In Zoroastrian tradition, prayers must be enunciated with care for them to be effective. The Indo-Iranian formula*sātyas mantras (Yasna 31.6:haiθīm mathrem) "does not simply mean 'true Word' but formulated thought which is in conformity with the reality' or 'poetic (religious) formula with inherent fulfillment (realization)'".[16]
The kinship[23] between Old Iranianaṣ̌a-/arta- and Vedicŗtá- is evident in numerous formulaic phrases and expressions that appear in both theAvesta and in theRigVeda.[24] For instance, the*ŗtásya path, "path of truth", is attested multiple times in both sources: Y 51.13, 72.11; RV 3.12.7, 7.66.3. Similarly "source of truth," Avestanaṣ̌a khá and Vedickhâm ṛtásya (Y 10.4; RV 2.28.5)
The adjective corresponding to Avestanaṣ̌a/arta- ishaiθiia- "true". Similarly, the adjective corresponding to Vedicŗtá- "truth" issátya- "true". The opposite of bothaṣ̌a/arta- andhaithya- isdruj- "lie" or "false". In contrast, in the Vedas the opposite of bothŗtá- andsátya- isdruh- andánŗta-, also "lie" or "false".
However, while the Indo-Iranian concept of truth is attested throughout Zoroastrian tradition,ŗtá- disappears in post-Vedic literature and is not preserved in post-Vedic texts. On the other hand,sátya- andánrta- both survive in classical Sanskrit.
The main theme of the Rig Veda, "the truth and the gods", is not evident in the Gathas.[25] Thematic parallels betweenaṣ̌a/arta andŗtá-, however, exist such as inYasht 10, the Avestan hymn toMithra. There, Mithra, who is the hypostasis and the preserver of covenant, is the protector ofaṣ̌a/arta.[26] RigVedicMitra is likewise preserver ofŗtá-.
Asha Vahishta is closely associated withfire. Fire is "grandly conceived as a force informing all theotherAmesha Spentas, giving them warmth and the spark of life."[27]InYasht 17.20,Angra Mainyu clamours that Zoroaster burns him with Asha Vahishta. InVendidad 4.54-55, speaking against the truth and violating the sanctity of promise is detected by the consumption of "water, blazing, of golden color, having the power to detect guilt."
This analogy of truth that burns and detecting truth through fire is already attested in the very earliest texts, that is, in the Gathas and in theYasna Haptanghaiti. InYasna 43–44, Ahura Mazda dispenses justice through radiance of His fire and the strength of aṣ̌a. Fire "detects" sinners "by hand-grasping" (Yasna 34.4). An individual who has passed the fiery test (garmo-varah,ordeal by heat), has attained physical and spiritual strength, wisdom, truth and love with serenity (Yasna 30.7). Altogether, "there are said to have been some 30 kinds of fiery tests in all."[28] According to the post-SassanidDadestan i denig (I.31.10), at the final judgement a river of molten metal will cover the earth. The righteous, as they wade through this river, will perceive the molten metal as a bath of warm milk. The wicked will be scorched. For details on aṣ̌a's role in personal and final judgement, seeaṣ̌a in eschatology, below.
Fire is moreover the "auxiliary of the truth," "and not only, as in the ordeal, of justice and of truth at the same time."[11] InYasna 31.19, "the man who thinks ofaṣ̌a, [...] who uses his tongue in order to speak correctly, [does so] with the aid of brilliant fire". InYasna 34-44 devotees "ardently desire [Mazda's] mighty fire, through aṣ̌a." InYasna 43–44, Ahura Mazda "shall come to [Zoroaster] through the splendour of [Mazda's] fire, possessing the strength of (through) aṣ̌a and good mind (=Vohu Manah)." That fire "possesses strength throughaṣ̌a" is repeated again inYasna 43.4. InYasna 43.9, Zoroaster, wishing to serve fire, gives his attention toaṣ̌a. InYasna 37.1, in a list of what are otherwise all physical creations,aṣ̌a takes the place of fire.
Asha Vahishta's association withatar is carried forward in the post-Gathic texts, and they are often mentioned together. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, each of the Amesha Spentas represents one aspect of creation and one of seven primordial elements that in Zoroastrian tradition are the basis of that creation. In this matrix,aṣ̌a/arta is the origin of fire, Avestanatar, which permeates through all Creation. The correspondence then is thataṣ̌a/arta "penetrates all ethical life, as fire penetrates all physical being."[12]
In the liturgy Asha Vahishta is frequently invoked together with fire. (Yasna l.4, 2.4, 3.6, 4.9, 6.3, 7.6, 17.3, 22.6, 59.3, 62.3 etc.). In one passage, fire is a protector ofaṣ̌a: "when the Evil Spirit assailed the creation of Good Truth, Good Thought and Fire intervened" (Yasht 13.77)
In later Zoroastrian tradition, Asha Vahishta is still at times identified with the fire of the household hearth.[29]
In addition to the role of fireas the agent of Truth, fire, among its various other manifestations, is also "the fire of judicial ordeal, prototype of the fiery torrent of judgement day, when all will receive their just deserts 'by fire and by Aṣ̌a' (Y 31.3)."[27]
In the Avesta, the "radiant quarters" ofaṣ̌a is "the best existence", i.e. Paradise (cf.Vendidad 19.36), entry to which is restricted to those who are recognized as "possessing truth" (aṣ̌avan).[30] The key to this doctrine isYasna 16.7: "We worship the radiant quarters ofAṣ̌a in which dwell the souls of the dead, theFravašis of theaṣ̌avans; the best existence (=Paradise) of theaṣ̌avans we worship, (which is) light and according all comforts."[30]
'Aṣ̌a' derives from the sameProto-Indo-European root as 'Airyaman', the divinity of healing who is closely associated with Asha Vahishta. At the last judgement, the common nounairyaman is an epithet of thesaoshyans, the saviours that bring about the final renovation of the world. The standing epithet of these saviour figures is 'astvatәrәta', which likewise hasarta as an element of the name.[22] These saviours are those who follow Ahura Mazda's teaching "with acts inspired by aṣ̌a" (Yasna 48.12). Both Airyaman and Asha Vahishta (as alsoAtar) are closely associated withSraosha "[Voice of] Conscience" and guardian of theChinvat bridge across which souls must pass.
According to a lost Avestan passage that is only preserved in a later (9th century) Pahlavi text, towards the end of time and the final renovation, Aṣ̌a and Airyaman will together come upon the earth to do battle with the Az, thedaeva of greed (Zatspram 34.38-39).
TheArdwahisht Yasht, which is nominally addressed to Asha Vahishta, is in fact mostly devoted to the praise of theairyaman ishya (airyәmā īšyo, "Longed-forairyaman"), the fourth of the four great Gathic prayers. In present-day Zoroastrianism it is considered to invoke Airyaman just as theAshem Vohu, is the second of the four great Gathic prayers, is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. All four prayers (the first is theAhuna Vairya, the third is theYenghe Hatam) have judgement and/or salvation as a theme, and all four call on the Truth.
It is Airyaman that – together with fire – will "melt the metal in the hills and mountains, and it will be upon the earth like a river" (Bundahishn 34.18). In Zoroastrian tradition, metal is the domain ofXshathra [Vairya], the Amesha Spenta of "[Desirable] Dominion", with whom Aṣ̌a is again frequently identified. Dominion is moreover "a form of truth and results from truth."[31]
InDenkard 8.37.13, Asha Vahishta actually takes over Airyaman's healer role as the healer of all spiritual ills and Airyaman then only retains the role of healer of corporeal ills. Although Airyaman has no dedication in the Siroza, the invocations to the divinities of theZoroastrian calendar, Airyaman is twice invoked together with Aṣ̌a. (Siroza 1.3 and 2.3)
Aogemadaecha 41-47 prototypes death as a journey that has to be properly prepared for: As mortals acquires material goods as they go through life, so also should they furnish themselves with spiritual stores of righteousness. They will then be well provisioned when they embark on the journey from which they will not return.
Aṣ̌a's role is not limited to judgement: InBundahishn 26.35, Aṣ̌a prevents daevas from exacting too great a punishment to souls consigned to the House of Lies. Here, Aṣ̌a occupies the position that other texts assign toMithra, who is traditionally identified with fairness.
For the relationship between Aṣ̌a, eschatology andNowruz, seein the Zoroastrian calendar, below.
Although there are numerouseschatological parallels between Aṣ̌a andAši "recompense, reward" (most notably their respective associations with Sraosha and Vohu Manah), and are on occasion even mentioned together (Yasna 51.10), the two are notetymologically related. The feminine abstract nounaši/arti derives fromar-, "to allot, to grant." Aši also has no Vedic equivalent.
InZoroastrian cosmogony andcosmology, which—though alluded to in the Gathas—is only systematically described in Zoroastrian tradition (e.g.Bundahishn 3.12),aṣ̌a is the second (cf.Yasna 47.1) of the six primeval creations realized ("created by His thought") by Ahura Mazda. It is through these six, theAmesha Spentas that all subsequent creation was accomplished.
In addition to Asha Vahishta's role as an Amesha Spenta and hence one of the primordial creations through which all other creation was realized, Truth is one of the "organs, aspects or emanations" of Ahura Mazda through which the Creator acts and is immanent in the world.[32]
Although Vohu Manah regularly stands first in the list of the Amesha Spenta (and of Ahura Mazda's creations), in the Gathas Asha Vahishta is the most evident of the six, and also the most commonly associated with Wisdom (Mazda). In the 238 verses of these hymns, Aṣ̌a appears 157 times. Of the other concepts, onlyVohu Manah "Good Purpose" appears nearly as often (136 occurrences). In comparison, the remaining four of the great sextet appear only 121 times altogether.
Although a formal hierarchy is not evident in the Gathas, the group of six "divides naturally into threedyads."[27] In this arrangement, Aṣ̌a is paired with Vohu Manah. This reflects the frequency in which the two appear (together) in the Gathas and is in turn reflected in Zoroastrian tradition. InBundahishn 26.8, Vohu Manah stands at the left hand of God, while Aṣ̌a stands at the right.
Yasht 1, the hymn dedicated to Ahura Mazda, provides a list of 74 "names" by which the Creator is invoked.[f] In the numbered list ofYasht 1.7, 'Asha Vahishta' "Best Truth" is the fourth name.[33] A later verse,Yasht 1.12, includes 'Aṣ̌avan'[34] "Possessing Truth" and 'Aṣ̌avastəma' "Most Righteous".[35] InYasna 40.3, Ahura Mazda isaṣ̌aŋāč "havingaṣ̌a following".[34]
One ofHaoma's stock epithets isaṣ̌avazah- "furtheringaṣ̌a" (Yasht 20.3;Yasna 8.9, 10.1.14, 11.10 et al.).Atar "possesses strength throughaṣ̌a" (aṣ̌a-ahojah, Yasna 43.4).
In theZoroastrian calendar, the third day of the month and the second month of the year are dedicated to and named afteraṣ̌a and Asha Vahishta (calledارديبهشتOrdibehesht inModern Persian both inIranian Calendar and Yazdgerdi calendar).
A special service toaṣ̌a and Aṣ̌a, known as the 'Jashan of Ardavisht', is held on the day on which month-name and day-name dedications intersect. In theFasli andBastani variants of theZoroastrian calendar, this falls on April 22.
Rapithwin, one of the fivegahs (watches) of the day, under the protection of Aṣ̌a. (Bundahishn 3.22) This implies that all prayers recited between noon and three invoke Aṣ̌a. Noon is considered to be the "perfect" time, at which instant the world was created and at which instant time will stop on the day of the final renovation of the world.
In the winter months, thedaevic time of year, Rapithwin is known as theSecond Havan (the first Havan being from dawn to noon), and with the first day of spring, March 21, Rapithwin symbolically returns. This day, March 21, isNowruz
Nowruz, the holiest of allZoroastrian festivals is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. It follows immediately after Pateti, the day of introspection and the Zoroastrian equivalent of All-Souls Day. Nowruz, Zoroastrianism's New Year's Day, is celebrated on the first day of spring, traditionally understood to be the day of rebirth, and literally translated means "New Day". The first month of the year of the Zoroastrian calendar is Farvadin, which is dedicated to and named after theFravašis, the ancestral higher spirits.
"The underlying idea of the dedication" of the second month of the year to Asha Vahishta "may be revivification of the earth after the death of winter."[36]
OnKushan coins, Asha Vahishta "appears as Aṣ̌aeixšo, with a diadem and nimbus, like Mithra in the same series."[17]
"Arta- (Mid. Iranianard-), representing either the Av. divinity Aṣ̌a or the principleaṣ̌a, occurs frequently as an element inIranian personal names."[17]
Hellenized/Latinized names include:
Other names include:
Middle Iranianard- is also suggested to be the root of names of the current dayIranian cities ofArdabil,Ardekan,Ardehal andArdestan.[37]
| a) | ^ | Middle Iranianard- denotingaša-/arta- should not be confused with anotherard-, denoting "fortune." The latter derives from Avestanaši- orarti-, which has a different gender. |
| b) | ^ | Avestanvahišta (as inAsha Vahishta) is a superlative of the adjectivevohu- "good", hence "vahišta" "best". As a noun however, "vohu-" means "possession". |
| c) | ^ | Aside from its use in proper names,Old Persianạrta is only attested in one source,[38]Xerxes' "daiva inscription" (XPh). In this one text, the word appears in two forms: One form is as adjectivalạrtavan-, which corresponds[30] to Avestanašavan-. The other form is in a thrice-repeated phraseạrtācā brazmaniya, the reading/meaning of which is not conclusively established. For a review of various interpretations, see Kent, 1945[39] and Skjærvø, 1987.[38] |
| d) | ^ | This meaning ofašavan was not considered in some translations of other texts, leading to the assumption that the Avesta did not preserve all nuances of Indo-Iranian*ŗtávan. |
| e) | ^ | The doctrinal basis for this extension of meaning is uncertain, but is "probably"[40] due to the polar opposition ofašavan todrəgvant "liar" (YAv.drvant). It could then also be a continuation of the principle thatašavan is not only an intrinsic property of divinities, but also applies to everything that pertains to the domain of Ahura Mazda and/or Aša, and thus everything that is notdrəgvant/drvant. |
| f) | ^ | Aša appears as "holy" inDarmesteter's 1883 translation ofYasht 1 (inSBE 23). |
| g) | ^ | Saoshyant may have been a term originally applied to Zoroaster himself (e.g.Yasna 46.3)[41] |
| h) | ^ | Miller maintains "/Ř/ is the normal phonological reflex of*-rt-, and thatrt has been restored according toKuryłowicz's 'Fourth Law of Analogy' in motivating categories where there was still awareness of a morpheme boundary between the /r/ and the /t/."[7] That is, "rt passes toš by a regular phonological law, andš was then replaced morphologically byrt when the morpheme cut was still evident."[9] |
| j) | ^ | The source reads: "We can conclude, without entering into more detail, that Iran, as India, presents us with a term which has had to signify first of all 'true statement'; that this statement, because it was true, had to correspond to an objective, material reality; and that, as the discourse did, this reality must embrace all things; and, finally that one recognized in it a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it."[11] |
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