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Air Marshal Asghar Khan HPkHQA
اصغر خان
Air Marshal Asghar Khan in hisB-57 Canberra,Pakistan Day, 1962
ChairmanTehrik-e-Istiqlal
In office 1 March 1970 – 12 December 2011
Preceded by	Political party established
Succeeded by	Merged withPTI
2ndCommander-in-Chief Pakistan Air Force
In office 23 July 1957 – 23 July 1965
President	Iskander Mirza (1956-1958) Ayub Khan (1958-1969)
Deputy	Maqbool Rabb (1957-59) M. A. Rahman (1959-1964) Mohammad Akhtar (1964-65)
Preceded by	Arthur McDonald
Succeeded by	Nur Khan
President Pakistan International Airlines
In office 23 July 1965 – 23 July 1968
Preceded by	Nur Khan
Succeeded by	Mohammad Akhtar
Other positions Member of the6th National Assembly In office 21 March 1977 – 4 July 1977 Constituency NA-13 Abbottabad-II NA-190 Karachi-VIII Chief Administrator Civil Aviation Authority and Tourism In office 23 July 1965 – 23 July 1968[a] Succeeded by Mohammad Akhtar 9th President Pakistan Football Federation In office January 1961 – August 1965 Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Pakistan Air Force In office (acting) 10 September 1951 – 30 September 1951 Air Officer Commanding No. 1 Group Royal Pakistan Air Force In office February 1949 – September 1949 Succeeded by G. B. Kelly 1stCommandant RPAF Flying Training School In office 15 September 1947 – 15 September 1948 Preceded by Office Established Succeeded by Nur Khan Chief Flying Instructor Advanced Flying School Ambala In office 1 November 1946 – 14 August 1947 Commanding Officer No. 9 Squadron RIAF In office 28 August 1945 – 30 October 1946 Flight CommanderNo. 9 Squadron RIAF (B Flight) In office 13 December 1944 – 27 August 1945
Personal details
Born	Mohammad Asghar Khan 17 January 1921 Jammu,Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)
Died	5 January 2018(2018-01-05) (aged 96) CMH Rawalpindi,Pakistan
Cause of death	Cardiac arrest
Resting place	Nawan Shehr,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Party	Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (2011–2018)
Other political affiliations	Justice Party (1969) Pakistan Democratic Party (1969) Tehrik-e-Istiqlal (1970–2011)
Height	5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Spouse	Amina Shamsie ​ ​ (m. 1946; died 2023)​
Children	4, includingOmar andAli
Relatives	Aslam Khan (brother) Abaidullah Khan (cousin)
Education	Prince of Wales Royal Indian Military College Indian Military Academy No. 1 (I) SFTS No. 1 EFTS, Begumpet Day Fighter Leaders School RAF Staff College, Andover Joint Services Staff College (UK) (BSc) Imperial Defence College (MSc)[3]
Civilian awards	Gold Medal Human Rights Society of Pakistan (1985)[4] Jinnah Award (2006)[b]
Nickname(s)	Father of thePakistan Air Force[7] Night Flier[8]
Military service
Branch/service	British Indian Army(1940)  Royal Indian Air Force(1940-1947)  Pakistan Air Force(1947-1965)
Years of service	1940–1968[c]
Rank	Air Marshal
Unit	9th Deccan Horse(1940) No. 3 Squadron RIAF(1941-1944) No. 9 Squadron RIAF(1944-1946)
Commands	Pakistan Air Force RPAF Flying Training School No. 9 Squadron RIAF
Battles/wars	See List: World War II Burma Campaign 1944–1945 Indo-Pakistani conflicts Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948 1959 Canberra shootdown Rann of Kutch conflict Dir-Bajaur Campaign (1960-61)
Military awards	See list
Asghar Khan's voice Asghar Khan on the political repression under the regime ofField Marshal Ayub Khan, just before his official resignation, amidst signs of its imminent collapse. Broadcast 13 March 1969 Asghar Khan's radio interview.wav

Mohammad Asghar Khan^[d] (17 January 1921 – 5 January 2018) known asNight Flier, held the distinction of being the first native and second^[e]Commander-in-Chief of thePakistan Air Force from 1957 to 1965. He has been described as theFather of the Pakistan Air Force. Additionally, he was the ninth president of thePakistan Football Federation, an airline executive, politician, and author.

Born inJammu, Khan graduated with distinction from theIndian Military Academy and commissioned into theBritish Indian Army in 1940. With the onset ofWorld War II, theRoyal Indian Air Force asked for volunteers and he transferred in December of that year. Stationed inHyderabad in 1942, he was ordered by the martial law administrator ofSindh to attack a convoy ofHurs traveling withPir of Pagaro VI. Leading three aircraft, Khan refused upon seeing it consisted of unarmed civilians and returned to base. Threatened with acourt-martial, Khan replied, "I cannot follow an unlawful command."

Flight Lieutenant Asghar Khan as commander 'B' Flight—No. 9 Sqn, led operations in theBurma Campaign and became the commander of the squadron in 1945. After the war, he considered resigning to participate in theIndonesian revolution but was advised byJinnah to serve Pakistan's future air force. In 1946, he became the firstIndian subcontinent pilot to fly a fighter jet, theGloster Meteor III while attending theDay Fighter Leaders School atRAF West Raynham. After thePartition of British India, he opted for theRoyal Pakistan Air Force and planned to move toLahore with his wife in 1947. Their home in theAmbala cantonment was reassigned to Wing Commander Nair, who barred them from traveling by train. Though Khan refused to seek help, Nair informedPerry-Keene, theAir Officer Commanding of the RPAF, who arranged a flight toPeshawar, saving their lives, as all passengers on their intended train were killed.

At the age of 36 in 1957, Khan became the youngestCommander-in-Chief of thePakistan Air Force and the youngest Air Vice Marshal in the world. At 37, he became the youngest Air Marshal. He modernised the Air Force by founding the Fighter Leader's School, Mauripur^[f] andPAF Staff College, inducting advanced aircraft such as theF-86 Sabre,B-57 Canberra, and theF-104 Starfighter. He also established severalair stations,wings,squadrons, and implemented operational reforms. Rejecting a widespreadWest Pakistani notion thatBengalis were unfit for military service, he abolished height measurements from recruitment criteria. Shortly before theIndo-Pakistani War of 1965, he switched offices with his successor,Air Marshal Nur Khan, and became the head ofPakistan International Airlines. Their tenures are considered the airline'sgolden age.

Criticising the regime ofPresident Ayub Khan, Asghar Khan entered politics alongsideSyed Mahbub Murshed in 1968 after the arrest ofZulfikar Ali Bhutto and spearheaded protests for his release. In 1970, he founded theTehreek-e-Istiqlal. Following the commencement ofOperation Searchlight in 1971, he led protests acrossEast andWest Pakistan, demanding the release ofSheikh Mujibur Rahman, leveraging the popularity he had earned as Air Chief and repeatedly advocated for the rights ofBengalis. He opposed theBengali genocide and demanded thatPresident Yahya Khan be put on trial for his role. By the mid-1970s, Asghar Khan was the main figure behind thePakistan National Alliance (PNA) againstPrime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.

Elected to theNational Assembly fromAbbottabad andKarachi in the1977 elections, Khan was arrested by Prime Minister Bhutto under martial law during a crackdown on nationwide protests against widely alleged electoral rigging. While imprisoned, he read in a newspaper that a Pakistan Army major had killed a civilian who had made aV sign toward the officer. In response, Khan wrote a letter^[g] urging military officers to distinguish between lawful and unlawful orders. While providing an excerpt from his letter,The Washington Post said Khan was "probably the most popular of the nine Alliance party leaders".

After negotiations between the opposition and Bhutto's government failed,General Zia-ul-Haq launched acoup d'état in July 1977 and placed Khan under house arrest, where he remained until 1984. During this time,Amnesty International recognised him as aprisoner of conscience. Although Khan had earlier led the PNA movement against Bhutto who wasexecuted in 1979, he publicly demanded Bhutto's release in a letter to Zia. In the letter, he also criticised the military regime for failing to hold promised elections within 90 days of the coup.

Despite his stand against authoritarianism, Khan's political influence remained limited in the early 1990s. He filed a lawsuit in 1996 challenging the results of the1990 elections, which came to be known as theAsghar Khan case. The election was marred by widespread rigging, withNawaz Sharif securing victory through an election cell created byPresident Ghulam Ishaq Khan. Funds from the country'sforeign exchange reserves were illegally redirected to Sharif by thePakistan Army and theInter-Services Intelligence, who manipulated the election by bribing politicians. In 2012, GeneralsAslam Beg,Asad Durrani,Hamid Gul, and banker Yunus Habib publicly admitted their involvement in influencing the election results. TheSupreme Court of Pakistan ruled in Khan's favour, and ordered the government to take action against those involved. Despite this, no one has faced any repercussions and the case remains largely forgotten. In 2011, Khan merged his party withPakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf. At the age of 96, he died fromcardiac arrest in early 2018.

Born on 17 January 1921 in Tavi,Jammu, into anAfridi Pashtun family, Mohammad Asghar Khan was the son of Brigadier Rehmatullah Khan and his fourth wife, Gulam Fatima.^[12][13]

Rehmatullah had a total of 13 children from his first and fourth marriages. From his first wife, he had Aysha Bibi, who died at the age of 12 from an illness, and Colonel Nasrullah Khan. From his fourth wife, Gulam Fatima, his children in order of age wereAslam Khan, Asghar Khan, Major Mohammad Anwar Khan, Pilot Officer Mohammad Asaf Khan,^[14][15]Commander Mohammad Afzal Khan,^[h] Salma Rehmat,^[i] Squadron Leader Mohammad Khalid Khan,^[j][17][18] Flt Lt Mohammad Tariq Khan,^[k] Shamim Rehmat,^[l] Zarina Rehmat,^[m] and Farooq Rehmatullah.^[n][20][21]

In early 1933, while reading a newspaper, Asghar Khan saw an advertisement for thePrince of Wales Royal Indian Military College and enrolled after convincing his father who was initially reluctant. In March 1933, he arrived inDehradun for the interview after being selected.^[19]

His classmates wereSahabzada Yaqub Khan andNur Khan, who Asghar became close friends with.^[19] Another batchmate wasSherbaz Khan Mazari.^[22] The cadets were divided into three sections, known as Houses. Asghar and Nur Khan belonged to the Rawlinson House, while Yaqub was part of the Kitchener House.^[23] After six years at the college, Asghar Khan was then eligible to take the entrance exam in Delhi to join theIndian Military Academy (IMA). He was among 12 students from the entireIndian subcontinent, includingSahabzada Yaqub Khan andTikka Khan, who were selected for training in 1939.^[19]

Asghar andSahabzada Yaqub Khan lived inSrinagar and were required to undergo medical examinations at the Combined Military Hospital (CMH) inSialkot before joining the IMA. Upon reporting to the CMH, they underwent laboratory tests and were examined by Major Puri of theIndian Medical Services. While Yaqub was declared fit, Major Puri informed Asghar Khan that the tests revealed dangerously high levels ofalbumin in his urine and he had only two to three months to live. He was admitted to the hospital and instructed to limit his physical activities, as exertion could further shorten his lifespan.^[19]

Asghar Khan asked Yaqub to inform his father inSrinagar about his condition. Although he felt perfectly healthy, Khan spent two anxious days in the hospital until his father arrived, accompanied by a doctor from Srinagar and some medical books. These books explained that albumin had once been considered dangerous, but then-recent studies showed that some members of theCambridge University rowing team had albumin in their urine, and further research distinguished between two types of albumin: caustic and functional. The caustic type was dangerous, while the functional type was harmless. In Asghar Khan's case, the albumin was determined to be functional. Major Puri, convinced by this information, declared him fit to join the academy.^[19]

He initially dreamt of becoming a fighter pilot in theRoyal Indian Air Force and tried to transfer just beforeWorld War II broke out in 1939, butRAF College Cranwell to which he wanted to go first, had accepted only one Indian pilot for training in 1938 and entries were frozen.^[24]

Distrusting the Sikh Rajwaras,Maharaja of KashmirRanjit Singh hired two groups as bodyguards. One group consisted ofDogras led byGulab Singh, while the other was aPashtun group mainly made up of Malikdin KhelAfridis, known for their military skills in theKhyber Pass. This group was led by Sardar Asad Khan and his son, Sardar Samad Khan, who was Asghar Khan's paternal grandfather. After Ranjit Singh died in 1839, internal conflicts among Sikh warlords left these forces without roles. Consequently, they returned to their homelands. Shortly after, Gulab Singh purchased the state ofJammu and Kashmir as a result of theTreaty of Amritsar (1846). Facing resistance from Dogra warlords, Gulab Singh sought help from his Afridi ally, Sardar Samad Khan. Responding to the call, Khan arrived with a substantial force of Afridis and their families. They settled in an area called Haihama, about three miles north ofKupwara. The Afridi men joined various campaigns to suppress Dogra warlords and quelled uprisings in theYasin Valley,Hunza Valley, andNagar Valley.^[25] Sardar Samad Khan had seven wives, the last of whom, Asghar Khan's paternal grandmother, was fromYasin. In 1855, Sardar Samad Khan moved fromTirah Valley and eventually settled in Battal-Ballian, nearUdhampur in Jammu and Kashmir, where he lived until his death in 1900. He is buried with his wife in Magarmal Bagh,Srinagar.^[19]

Major General Sardar Samundar Khan, Asghar Khan's paternal uncle,^[26] played a key role as the commander ofMaharaja Hari Singh's Kashmir Army. His leadership was particularly noted for fostering camaraderie within the first Kashmir Regiment, which under his guidance, constructed a hockey ground atBunji, on a steep hillside. After retiring from the military, Samandar Khan contributed significantly to the Muslim community in his area. As the co-founder^[27] and President of the Anjuman-e-Islamia, Jammu,^[28] he helped establish a girls' high school in Mohalla Dalpattian and secured part ofJammu Fort for a boys' school, transforming it into Islamia High School.^[29][30] Previously, General Samandar Khan held high staff posts under Commander-in-Chief's Raja Ram Singh and later Raja Amar Singh.^[31]

Known for his generosity, General Samundar Khan kept his home open to anyone in need within theMohalla. His strong influence extended to his interactions with the Maharaja of Kashmir, who showed him "great respect" during his visits to the Durbar. Although he did not have children, he provided care and guidance to the children of his youngest brother Rahmatullah Khan.^[29][32]

Asghar Khan married Amina Shamsie in November 1946, while serving as the Chief Flying Instructor atRIAF Station Ambala.^[33] She was the sister of Syed Saleem Shamsie, the husband ofMuneeza Shamsie.^[34]

Asghar and Amina had two daughters, Nasreen and Shereen, and two sons,^[35]Ali and Cambridge-educated ProfessorOmar Asghar Khan, who died under mysterious circumstances^[36][37] two months before the2002 Pakistani general election, during the regime ofGeneral Musharraf.^[19]

After Omar's mysterious death,Ardeshir Cowasjee wrote inDawn that the "indefatigable old warrior of our skies" is "sorely wounded" by the loss of his son. He described Asghar Khan as "an honest man of moderate means" who "genuinely wished to do good" but believed there was "no way, no way at all" he could succeed in Pakistan's political environment, given "the mindset of the majority."^[38]

During his tenure as chief of the Air Force, a PAF officer approached his father, Rehmatullah Khan, seeking a recommendation for a preferred posting. Rehmatullah contactedPresident Ayub Khan to request that Asghar Khan assist the officer. Ayub Khan complied, but Asghar Khan declined the request. Following this incident, Asghar severed communication with his father for an extended period. Columnist Shahzad Chaudhry fromThe Express Tribune, reflected on his principled refusal and said, "They don't make them like that anymore".^[39]

Asghar Khan was fluent inPashto, Urdu, and English, though he spoke Punjabi only occasionally.^[19]

After 1½ years of training at theIndian Military Academy,^[o] Khan graduated with distinction and was commissioned as aSecond Lieutenant into the9th Deccan Horse of theBritish Indian Army on 3 January 1940.^[40][41]

After the outbreak ofWorld War II, theRoyal Indian Air Force began inducting personnel again and in pursuit of his dream, Khan was seconded to the air force on 22 December 1940.^[42] He began his training at the Initial Training Wing atWalton inLahore, then trained at theNo. 1 EFTS, Begumpet for a three month course on theTiger Moth, mastering the aircraft and then theHawker Audax inAmbala.^[19]

In December 1941, Khan transferred toNo. 3 Sqn stationed inPeshawar and became a pilot onWapiti andHawker Hart aircraft. The squadron later moved toKohat.^[43]

Stationed inHyderabad, Sindh in 1942, Asghar Khan's commanding officer was Flight LieutenantOm Prakash Mehra. Khan was ordered by Major General Richardson, the Martial Law Administrator ofSindh,^[44] to destroy a convoy ofHurs which was proceeding East withPir of Pagaro VI.^[45] Mehra ordered Khan to lead the flight, with Richardson telling them that this was an important mission and he would wait at the airbase for the return of Khan and his pilots. After taking off with four aircraft, Khan came across the convoy but upon seeing them, noticed that they were unarmed men, women, and children. He refused to carry out the order and returned to base without firing a single shot, telling an annoyed Richardson, who threatened him with acourt-martial, "I cannot follow an unlawful command".^[46][45]

From 13 December 1944 to 27 August 1945,Flight Lieutenant Asghar Khan was Flight Commander 'B' Flight,No. 9 Sqn, stationed inBurma duringWorld War II and fought in theBurma Campaign leading aerial operations against Japanese forces.^[47] He engaged in ground strikes in theArakan flying aircraft such as theHurricane IIC, SpitfireMk VIII, and SpitfireMk XIV. Afterwards, he participated in peacetime training atDelhi andRanchi.^[48] In 2015, retired Group Captain Micky Blake recalled his time with Khan when he was Flight Commander. Blake remembered Khan challenging an American squadron oflightning fighters who mocked theirHurricanes as "peashooters". In a dogfight over the base, Khan, despite being outnumbered two to one, "skillfully got on their tails", leaving theUSAF pilots "much more subdued than when they took off!"^[49]

When his former squadron mateDalip Singh Majithia fell ill in late February 1945, Flt Lt Asghar Khan, flew him to a hospital inCalcutta in a Harvard aircraft.^[50]

Promoted to Squadron Leader, he was appointed Commanding Officer ofNo. 9 Sqn on 28 August 1945.^[51] The squadron remained at Ranchi until 16 October 1945, when it left forCalcutta.^[52] Returning toBritish India from Burma in August 1945, he recalled thatPresident Sukarno called on pilots from around theMuslim world to assistIndonesia in itsfight against Dutch colonisers. In his words, Khan was disillusioned with bureaucracy and inspired by Sukarno's anti-imperialist campaigns against the Dutch, and contemplated resigning to assist Indonesia in their quest for independence. Before making a decision, he walked four miles toSafdarjung Airport to meetMuhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of theAll-India Muslim League, in November 1945. This was their first meeting and Jinnah advised him to work for the anticipated new country, Pakistan's air force, instead.^[53]

At the airstrip ofGurgaon on 12 March 1946, Air MarshalRoderick Carr presented a JapaneseSamurai sword to Commanding Officer Asghar Khan.^[54][55] Shortly after, he attended theDay Fighter Leaders School atRAF West Raynham and earned an 'A' grade as Squadron Commander. While there, he became theIndian subcontinent's first pilot to fly a fighter jet, theGloster Meteor III, on 20 May 1946.^[56][57]

On 7 June 1947,Squadron Leader Asghar Khan was appointed to the sub-committee led by Air Vice MarshalAllan Perry-Keene to distribute the defence assets ofBritish India between the proposed states ofPakistan andIndia. Khan's attachment withNo. 9 Sqn, which he had commanded, was noted as being so deep that he insisted the squadron be awarded to the impendingRoyal Pakistan Air Force.^[12]

After thePartition of British India, he opted forPakistan and was set to depart with his family fromAmbala by train toLahore on 23 August 1947. The house where he was staying, was assigned to Wing Commander Nair of the RIAF. Nair and his wife stayed as guests until Khan and his wife left. During this time, the region was engulfed in widespread communal violence, but Khan had limited information due to news censorship.^[19]

A few days before Khan's departure, Wg Cdr Nair, who was informed about the dire situation in the two new countries, advised him not to travel by train due to the ongoing massacres. Instead, Nair suggested that Khan askAllan Perry-Keene,Air Officer Commanding,Royal Pakistan Air Force, to arrange an aircraft for their journey. Khan was hesitant, telling Nair that it would be odd for him, as a squadron leader to make such a request, but Nair insisted he would contact Keene himself if Khan did not.^[19]

Nair called Keene and he agreed. Two days later, aDC-3 Dakota which was carrying Keene's luggage fromDelhi destined forPeshawar, arrived for Khan and his family inAmbala. As they flew towardsPeshawar, Khan recalled that he witnessed houses ablaze in almost every village from Ambala to the Pakistani border nearLahore. In his book,My Political Struggle, Khan wrote that these were evidently the homes of Muslims, with this creating an unforgettable and distressing sight for him. Khan later discovered that all the passengers on the train he initially planned to take had been massacred, and none had survived the journey to Pakistan. He recalled, "Wing Commander Nair did us a good turn and saved our lives".^[19]

After arriving inPakistan, Khan joined theRoyal Pakistan Air Force where he was promoted toWing Commander and tasked with establishing theRPAF Flying Training School. Appointed as its first commandant, he "managed to build it to the extent that in a short time it produced as many pilots as could have been trained in pre-Independence Indo-Pakistan."^[56]

On 13 April 1948, during his first visit to a unit of the RPAF, Governor-GeneralMuhammad Ali Jinnah, visited the Flying School at Risalpur—despite his deteriorating health. Accompanied by his sister,Fatima Jinnah, he was welcomed by Asghar Khan and reviewed a ceremonial parade composed of Flight Cadets from the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th GD(P) courses.^[58] Additionally, Jinnah renamed the school as the Royal Pakistan Air Force College.^[59] Air Commodore M.K. Janjua and Asghar Khan designed the RPAF flag which Jinnah then presented to the Air Force.^[60] The opening lines of the speech Jinnah delivered on this visit remain enshrined in the creed of the Pakistan Air Force:^[58]

"There is no doubt that a country without a strong Air Force is at the mercy of any aggressor. Pakistan must build up her air force as quickly as possible. It must be an efficient air force second to none and must take its right place with the Army and the Navy in securing Pakistan's Defence."

On 15 September 1948, Asghar Khan was succeeded byNur Khan as Commandant of the College,^[61][62] while he was appointed Officer Commanding of a Fighter Bomber Wing based inPeshawar, with operational responsibilities extending toSargodha and the majority of the operational and transport units of the Air Force.^[63]

After a 10-day gap in supply drops, a mission was undertaken on the night of 17/18 November 1948, during theIndo-Pakistani war. Wing Commander Asghar Khan and Squadron Leader M.J. Khan successfully flew the first hazardous night sortie, leading to further operations that helped prevent enemy advances. Asghar Khan also oversaw the transport of vital equipment, such as amortar barrel flown fromRisalpur toGilgit. His brother, MajorAslam Khan, played a key role on the ground, and had trained the rebels who defeated theJammu and Kashmir State Forces in theBattle of Muzaffarabad, earning recognition as a "liberator" of Kashmir and as theLegend of Baltistan.^[12][64]

During the war, which dragged on inconclusively until December 1948, some Pakistani forces continued fighting after the ceasefire due to broken landline and radio communications. It was decided that orders for the ceasefire would be airdropped by twoDC-3 Dakotas fromNo. 6 Squadron PAF. Asghar Khan organised, briefed and joined the mission himself. The briefing was scheduled for 0600 hours and the departure at 0700 on a cold December morning. While Khan arrived at 0550 and most of the aircrew were on time, a few were reported late between 0601-0610. Reportedly, Asghar Khan was angered by the delay and ordered the entire squadron to report daily at 0400 hours at the air traffic control building until further notice. He also ordered Officer Commanding Squadron Leader M.J. Khan, to be present and record individual arrival times.^[63]

By 1949, Asghar was appointed Commander of No. 1 Group.^[65] At the time, the RPAF was organised into two groups: No. 1 Group Headquarters for Operations, based inPeshawar, and No. 2 Group Headquarters for Maintenance, located atDrigh Road.^[66]

Group Captain Asghar Khan attendedRAF Staff College, Andover in 1950. In the absence of Air Vice MarshalLeslie William Cannon, who had went to England to secure more equipment for the RPAF, Khan briefly served as actingCommander-in-Chief from 10 September to 30 September 1951.^{[56][67][68][69]} That year, Khan was then appointed Director of Administration of the Air Force.^[70] Thereafter, he served as Assistant Chief of Air Staff (Operations).^[71] By 1952, he was selected for a course at theJoint Services Staff College (UK).^[56]

In response to the Communist threat, Gp Capt Asghar Khan, Gp CaptNur Khan, and Wg Cdr A. Qadir developed an expansion plan for the PAF in March 1954. This plan outlined a ten-year goal from 1954 to 1964, aiming to establish the Air Force with 768 aircraft across 44 squadrons. It included ten day-fighter squadrons, five night-fighter squadrons, six bomber squadrons, one reconnaissance squadron, twelve fighter-bomber squadrons, six tactical light bomber squadrons, two twin-engine and one four-engine transport squadrons, and two maritime squadrons.^[72]

On 17 April 1954, Group Captains'Haider Raza and Asghar Khan were both promoted to the rank ofAir Commodore.^[73] Khan met with BrigadierWilliam T. Sexton, Chief of theMilitary Advisory Assistance Group to Pakistan, on 3 August 1954 to discuss equipment procurement for the Pakistan Air Force.^[74]

Along withAgha Hilaly andSheikh Anwarul Haq, Air Commodore Asghar Khan was chosen to attend the 1955 course at theImperial Defence College, which commenced in January of that year.^[75][56] On 19 April 1955, he was among a group of senior officers from the fighting and civil services attending the college, who visited the Barnsley factory of Brook Motors Ltd. This visit was part of a tour of industrial sites inYorkshire, aimed at providing the officers with insights into various challenges that would be relevant both at the College and in their future assignments.^[76] While at the college, he attempted to learnEgyptian Arabic and tried speaking it with an Egyptian attaché in Pakistan, but was greeted with "helpless laughter", its noted that the language he had studied was not true Arabic but the version used by the British when shopping in the Muskey Bazaar inCairo.^[77]

In June 1955,Minister of DefenceGeneral Ayub Khan, asked his pilot Wing Commander S.M.Lanky Ahmad about the most suitable Pakistani officer to become the nextCommander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Air Force. He responded that as the defence minister, Ayub was in the best position to judge. However, Ayub insisted on hearing his personal opinion. Lanky referred to the RPAF seniority list and mentioned three likely candidates: Air CommodoresHaider Raza, Maqbool Rabb, and Asghar Khan. He strongly recommended Asghar, who was still actively flying and "very popular". He also noted thatPrime Minister Bogra had already recommended Raza for the position, and the file was awaiting the approval ofGovernor-General Malik Ghulam Muhammad at the Defence Ministry.^[78]

Air Commodore Asghar Khan was nominated asCommander-in-Chief byPrime Minister H. S. Suhrawardy on 20 April 1957, set to assume command upon the retirement ofArthur McDonald.^[79][80]

On 23 July 1957, Asghar Khan was promoted and became the youngestAir Vice Marshal (AVM) in the world at 36, and the first native chief of thePakistan Air Force, succeeding McDonald.^[82][83][84] With his appointment, all three branches of thePakistan Armed Forces—theArmy,Navy, and Air Force—were now under Pakistani command for the first time.^[85]

The handing-over ceremony took place atPAF Station Mauripur with a lineup of over 100 aircraft, primarilyF-86 Sabre andT-33 jets, on the tarmac. A guard of honour from Mauripur station was present for the ceremony. After inspecting the contingent and reviewing the aircraft, outgoing Air Vice Marshal McDonald praised the growing efficiency of the Air Force and reflected on its progress over the last ten years.^[86]

In his response, Asghar Khan thanked McDonald for his generous tribute to the PAF's growing efficiency and acknowledged the contributions of theRoyal Air Force to the development of the PAF. He further expressed confidence that, as members ofThe Commonwealth,SEATO, and theBaghdad Pact, their relationship would grow in strength and importance. He also shared his optimism about the demonstrated enthusiasm and efficiency of PAF personnel and emphasised the strong support they had received from both the government and the nation in building this crucial arm of Pakistan's defence forces.^[86]

As chief, Asghar Khan significantly dismissed the notion held by the leadership ofWest Pakistan, thatBengalis were physically unfit for army recruitment. He abolished this standard in the PAF, arguing that height and chest measurements were irrelevant to combat effectiveness.^[87]

In January 1958, Asghar Khan taskedWing Commanders'FS Hussain andMitty Masud with training pilots forKing Zahir Shah of Afghanistan's visit to Pakistan. TheFalcons aerobatic team, led by Masud, set a world record on 2 February with a16-aircraft diamond loop inF-86 Sabres. The event, attended by 30,000 spectators—includingPresident Iskandar Ali Mirza,General Ayub Khan, Asghar Khan, Air CommodoreNur Khan,Turkish Air Force GeneralSuphi Göker [tr],Iraqi Air Chief Abdul Kadhim Abaddi, and Iranian Air Force GeneralHedayatollah Gilanshah and the king—was a success.^[88] ThoughFS Hussain did not fly, Asghar Khan later commended him in a letter, praising his expertise and guidance in ensuring smooth operations.^[89]

During a meeting withAssistant Secretary of DefenseMansfield D. Sprague, inWashington, D.C. on 29 April 1958,General Ayub Khan and AVM Asghar Khan discussed U.S. military aid to Pakistan. Ayub requested the expedited delivery of a light bomber squadron under the 1954 Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement. When Asghar learned the aircraft would be theB-57 Canberra, he expressed his concerns as a technician, stating it was outdated and unworthy of Pakistani resources. He argued that theB-66 Destroyer orEnglish Electric Canberra would be better options. Ayub appeared shocked by the back-and-forth discussion, especially as Asghar remained adamant against accepting the B–57 despite assurances of its quality. The meeting concluded with plans for Asghar Khan to visit a U.S. squadron operating B–57s for further evaluation.^[90]

On 27 October, the night of the1958 Pakistani coup d'état, AVM Asghar Khan was asked byGeneral Ayub Khan to accompany GeneralsAzam Khan,Wajid Ali Khan Burki, K. M. Sheikh, and BrigadierMalik Sher Bahadur in approachingPresident Iskandar Mirza to demand his resignation. However, Asghar declined the request, stating that he "found the whole exercise distasteful," including Mirza'sabrogation of the constitution, through which he imposed martial law just three weeks earlier.^[91][92] On that night, Asghar Khan arrived at the VIP room ofMauripur airfield to bid farewell toIskandar Mirza and his wifeNahid Mirza, who were being sent into exile byAyub Khan. He found the couple seated on a sofa, with a junior Pakistan Army officer in an adjacent chair, his legs stretched across the table in front of the former President. Asghar told the officer that this was "the height of insolence" and "totally unnecessary," and ordered him out of the room.^[93]

On 30 October,General Musa Khan, Vice AdmiralHMS Choudri, and Air Vice Marshal Asghar Khan were appointed Deputy Chief Martial Law Administrators through Order No. 11, issued by theChief Martial Law Administrator,General Ayub Khan.^[94] On 5 November 1958, Asghar Khan was promoted to thethree-star rank ofAir Marshal (AM).^[81]

Following the1959 Canberra shootdown by the PAF, he presented a six-page list of then-recent violations of Pakistani airspace to a news correspondent in Karachi in May of that year. Several of the violations were from India. Within the preceding month, there had also been a significant number of violations by unidentified aircraft over theGilgit Agency. Khan left the presumption open that they were Russian bombers onreconnaissance missions.^[95] That year, he was also appointed as a Military Adviser toSoutheast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).^[96]

The firstB-57 Canberra of the PAF was piloted by Asghar Khan and landed on 23 November 1959 atPAF Station Drigh Road.^[97] In February 1960, he became the 1,131st recipient of the Certificate of Supersonic Recognition formach busting after piloting theNorth American F-100F Super Sabre. The award was presented to him by Major General Viccellio of theUnited States Air Force.^[98]

At the 12thSEATO military advisers conference on 25 May 1960, Khan called on members of the pact to keep their guard up and said: "Conditions in South and Southeast Asia require vigilance from the members of this alliance and we are conscious of the great responsibility that is shared by its members".^[99]

The Government of Pakistan extended his tenure as Commander-in-Chief by four years on 7 April 1961.^[19] In 1964, Asghar Khan became the first air chief to lead the fly past on thePakistan Day parade in anB-57 Canberra.^[100]

In the lead-up to theIndo-Pakistani War of 1965, tensions between India and Pakistan escalated. On 8 April 1965, both nationslaunched attacks on each other's posts. On 14 April, he called Air Chief MarshalArjan Singh of India—his former colleague from theRIAF—and they agreed to keep their forces out of the conflict. During this phone call, Air Marshal Asghar Khan warned that if theIndian Air Force (IAF) targeted Pakistani ground forces, the PAF would respond as necessary, potentially escalating the conflict. Despite pressure from Indian military leaders to deploy the IAF, Singh concurred with Khan's stance and refrained from sending the IAF into action as he was aware of the PAF's strategic advantages with airfields in Karachi and Badin. This agreement helped prevent the use of air power during the early stages of the conflict, despite the rising tensions between the two countries.^[101][102]

Asghar Khan is credited with establishing the following:^[12]

• Fighter Leader's School^[f] atPAF Station Mauripur in June 1958
• Introducing monthly air staff presentations in July 1958
• EstablishingPAF Staff College in January 1959, inductingF-86 Sabre's into the PAF along withNur Khan
• Forming an inspectorate team atAHQ (PAF) in January 1959
• Establishing PAF's first maintenance unit atDrigh Road in January 1959
• Installing the first high-powered radar atBadin and inducting theB-57 Canberra into the fleet of the PAF in November 1959
• Establishing the Ski & Snow Survival School at Kalabagh Nathiagali in 1960
• Forming Sector Operations Center (North) Sakesar in July 1960
• InductingF-104 Starfighter's in March 1961
• EstablishingPAF Station Sargodha andPAF Station Samungli^[r]
• Forming No 31/33/34/35 wings
• Introducingground-controlled approach (GCA) in the PAF in 1961
• Forming Airfield Construction Squadrons in January 1962
• Establishing the School of Physical Fitness and PAF's firstprinting press
• InductingT-33 andT-37 trainer aircraft in February 1962
• Introducing the concept of the Inter-Squadron Armament Competition and Annual Flight Safety Trophy
• Establishing the No 3 (Transport Conversion School),No. 7 Sqn PAF,No. 8 Sqn PAF,No. 18 Sqn PAF,No. 19 Sqn PAF, No. 23 Sqn PAF,No. 24 Sqn PAF
• Inducting the C-130Hercules aircraft into the fleet of PAF in March 1963
• Establishing No 32 Wing in July 1964
• Establishing theCollege of Aeronautical Engineering in March 1965
• Establishing the PAF Model School (now Fazaia) in April 1965.

On 10 January 1961, Asghar Khan was appointed as the ninth President of thePakistan Football Federation by the control board, which selected him to lead efforts in reorganising and revitalising the federation's activities.^[104] He resigned as President in August 1965 after serving in what was described as a "praiseworthy manner".^[105][106]

The Peshawar Golf Club celebrated itsCentenary in 1963 under the leadership of its president, Air Marshal Asghar Khan and to mark the occasion, he invited professional golfer John Jacobs^[107] from Middlesex's Sandy Lodge Club.^[108]

From 1965 to 1968, Khan also served as President of theKarachi Golf Club.^[109]

Asghar Khan was initially uninterested in taking on any government position, expressing his desire for retirement and reluctance to engage in employment. However,President Ayub Khan insisted that he remain in service but as the head ofPakistan International Airlines (PIA), as well as overseeing Civil Aviation and Tourism—all of which operated under theMinistry of Defence. Despite his efforts to dissuade Ayub Khan, he remained firm in his insistence. After extensive discussions and debates, Asghar Khan eventually agreed to the president's suggestion. He agreed to temporarily take on the role until a suitable replacement for the PIA could be found and continued serving in his rank ofAir Marshal.^[110]

Prior to Asghar Khan's appointment as president, his brother Afzal Khan, who was a formerCommander in thePakistan Navy and the owner of adairy company, had a lucrative contract to supply the PIA, which accounted for 50% of his profit. Asghar Khan canceled this contract upon taking over, citing that it was not ethically acceptable to him for his brother to make money while he was the head of the airline.^[110][19]

After taking on the new role, Asghar Khan moved into a larger residence inKarachi, which gave him more time to enjoy gardening and his favorite sport—golf. In July 1966, theAeroplane observed that the "serene environment" of the golf course may have influenced some of the policies that were becoming more visible in PIA. To promote similar recreational activities, he planned the development of additional golf courses in Pakistan, and he had already increased the domestic baggage allowance to accommodate golf equipment. In his role as head of the national tourism organisation, he was also tasked with improving recreational facilities across the country. Given his prior experience on PIA's board of directors, these roles were not unfamiliar to him. Khan moved swiftly to reinforce PIA's organisational structure, aligning it with reforms he was introducing in the other institutions under his leadership. His main base of operations was his office at Karachi Airport, where he delegated much of his authority to senior staff members.^[111][112] He was also given the additional charge of Chief Administrator Civil Aviation.^[113]

In 1966, Asghar Khan toldOmar Kureishi, the head of PIA's Public Relations team, that he wanted to change the air hostess uniforms. Kureishi recommended renowned French designerPierre Cardin. After the two met, Pierre created a fawn-colored summer uniform, a moss-green winter uniform, and an iconicdupatta, which captivated the aviation world in 1966, boosting PIA's global reputation. During this period, PIA achieved its lowest accident rate and recorded a historic net profit of PKR 55.5 million. Asghar Khan, interested in commercial aviation, appeared before theFederal Aviation Administration (FAA) for the commercial pilot's exam and earned his license, occasionally captaining Boeing flights. In 1967, PIA acquired Pakistan's first computer, theIBM 1401. PIA also commissioned an engine overhaul shop near its Head Office and completed a jet hangar with an airframe overhaul shop in 1968. Additionally, the airline inducted three new Boeing 707 jets, with a fourth expected in July 1968.^{[114][115][116][117][118][119][120]}

During a news conference in Karachi on 11 May 1967, Air Marshal Asghar Khan announced that PIA had become the fifth largest profit-making airline in the world, carrying one million passengers annually.^[121] At a press conference held at the PIA headquarters in Karachi in July 1967, he announced plans for the construction of a series of small hotels in major cities and resort areas across the country, with a total investment of Rs44.5 million orUS$9,345,000 (equivalent to $88,124,656 in 2024). The project included building 64-room hotels inSylhet,Sargodha,Sukkur,Mohenjo-daro,Chitral,Gilgit, andKaptai, and 88-room hotels inKhulna,Lyallpur,Multan, andMurree, with an additional 20 cottages attached to the new 644 room Kaptai Hotel. Furthermore,Peshawar andChittagong would each have hotels with 125 rooms.^[122][123]

The PIA Pavilion for the Pakistan Golf Federation was opened by Khan on 26 March 1968, and is now the Clubhouse of Islamabad Gymkhana Club.^[124]

Air Vice Marshal Mohammad Akhtar officially took control of the PIA on 23 July 1968, after Khan went on leave on 7 May.^[9][125] The airline, which had achieved eight consecutive years of profitability under both Asghar and his predecessor, Air Vice MarshalNur Khan, expanded its routes during Asghar Khan's tenure, to new destinations includingParis,Istanbul,Nairobi, andBangkok.^[126][127] Their tenures are considered the airline'sgolden age.^[128][110]

After retiring from the airline, Asghar Khan lived quietly at his home in Abbottabad. Before being imprisoned by PresidentField Marshal Ayub Khan,Zulfikar Ali Bhutto approached Asghar Khan, asking him to join his party, thePakistan Peoples Party (PPP). Khan declined and said he had no interest in politics. Bhutto then confided, "Ayub will have me killed through theNawab of Kalabagh". In response, Asghar Khan assured him, "If Ayub arrests you, I will publicly protest on your behalf". After Bhutto's arrest on 13 November 1968, Asghar Khan held a press conference in Lahore on 17 November,^[129] where he openly criticised Ayub Khan. During his speech, Asghar Khan remarked, "graft, nepotism, corruption, and administrative incompetence are affecting the lives and happiness of millions. Social inequality and economic disparity are increasing. Telephones are tapped, opinion is shackled, the opposition is shadowed and jailed, and no one can express his views fully". When asked by reporters about his role as chief of the air force whenGeneral Ayub Khan staged acoup d'état in 1958, Asghar said "I had a job to do, to run the Air Force and I continued to do this until my retirement. It wasn't a question of supporting any one".^[130]

The following week, Khan toldThe Times, "at present the whole structure stinks. It is not a healthy system, there is no criticism. The press is completely suppressed, there is no check on the government. We are bordering on a police state". Asghar Khan led protests calling for Bhutto's release, which ultimately led to his freedom and grew so close to Bhutto that many saw him as a potential successor.^{[131][132][133][19][134][135][136]}

In a letter on 9 December 1968, Asghar Khan formally requested written permission to meetZulfikar Ali Bhutto in jail to discuss the political situation in the country. He referred to a previous phone conversation with the Home Secretary on 3 December in which he requested a private meeting with Bhutto. However, he was informed that a meeting without a police officer present would not be allowed. Khan stated that the presence of a police officer would defeat the purpose of the meeting. He added that if the government could not permit a private meeting "despite the deteriorating situation in the country," he would in any case "like to call on Mr. Bhutto in jail."^[137]

Asghar Khan began his 11-day tour ofEast Pakistan on 11 December 1968. At anIftar gathering held atAwami League leaderSheikh Mujibur Rahman's residence atDhanmondi 32, on the evening of 12 December, Khan revealed that he sought permission to meet Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in military custody.^[138] CriticisingPresident Ayub Khan's comments about the substantial funds allocated for East Pakistan's redevelopment, Asghar Khan remarked, "It was a colonial approach." He explained that during theBritish Raj, "our rulers used to make frequent repetitions of what they (the British) had done for this subcontinent to convince the people that they were here in the interest of the people of this land." Describing this as an "outdated colonial approach," he reiterated that East Pakistan must receive an equal share in all national matters—whether economic or political.^[139]

On 15 December 1968 at a rally inDacca,Syed Mahbub Murshed and Asghar Khan announced their full support for the "legitimate interests" of bothEast andWest Pakistan, advocating for the fullest possible autonomy for East Pakistan.^{[140][141][142]} Two days later, Khan was charged by theGovernment of Pakistan for unlawfully inciting a crowd to assemble.^[143] On 29 December, Asghar Khan visitedZulfikar Ali Bhutto who was imprisoned in Sahiwal Jail.^[144]

Asghar Khan renounced hisHilal-e-Pakistan andHilal-e-Quaid-e-Azam awards on 29 January 1969, in protest againstPresident Ayub Khan's regime—which was described as an unprecedented move for an Air Marshal.^[145][146] Asghar Khan rose to the status of a national hero and was often referred to as the "President-in-waiting". Even the government-controlled press underPresident Ayub Khan regarded him as a potential successor.^[147] Similarly, in diplomatic and other discussions, Asghar Khan and Air Vice MarshalKhyber Khan were considered among the likely successors toPresident Ayub Khan during the collapse of his regime.^[148]

AfterZulfikar Ali Bhutto had been released from house arrest in February 1969, he went to visit Asghar Khan at his home and again extended an invitation to join his party, the Pakistan People's Party (PPP). However, Khan expressed disinterest, stating that he had no intention of entering politics. When Khan inquired about the party's agenda, Bhutto laughed and looked to his entourage and remarked, "Look at how simple this man is". He then said, "The people are fools; we will deceive them. We will be in power for 20 years, the danda (stick) will be in our hands, and no one will be able to remove us". Asghar Khan replied, "From this day forward I will be in opposition against you". Bhutto replied, "Go ahead, you will see that I am right".^{[149][150][19]}

Khan actively campaigned inEast Pakistan where he was very popular, advocating for the rights of the people ofEast Pakistan prior to^[151] and after the1971 War.^[152]

Asghar Khan formed the Justice Party (JP) on 13 March 1969.^[153] In terms of social justice and economic policies, it was characterised as a left-oriented party, while in its approach to Islamic values, it aligned more with right-wing principles.^[154] The first to join the party were veteranMuslim Leaguers such as Mian Bashir Ahmad and his wife, along with Saeed Enver, a former member of the Working Committee of theAll-India Muslim League. They were soon followed by Sheikh Khalid Mahmood, the General Secretary of the Kashmir Liberation Movement, Mian Manzar Bashir, a prominent member of theCouncil Muslim League,Rahim Bux Soomro, and two notable leaders of theUrdu-speaking community, Hafiz Mubarik Ali Shah and Khalid Bin Jaffar, who joined alongside their entire groups.^[155][156]

In June 1969, Abu Hisham, a leader of thePalestine Liberation Organization andAl-Fatah met with Asghar Khan and explained to him the activities of the organisation. Khan assured Abu Hisham of full support from himself and his party, saying that he would be ready to visit any place to give any advice or help to the Palestinian militants. Hisham thanked Khan for the assurance of cooperation and support.^[157]

The Justice Party merged into thePakistan Democratic Party (PDP) on 24 June 1969, which electedNurul Amin as its chairman.^{[158][159][160][161]} In this capacity, Asghar Khan was appointed as the Chairman of the Manifesto Committee. Mushtaq Ahmed, author of the bookPolitics Without Social Change, noted that Asghar Khan was "already an author of a manifesto issued earlier by the Justice Party, which was sufficiently radical, to raise hopes that the draft would be influenced by his thinking".^[162]

Asghar Khan launched his political party,Tehreek-e-Istiqlal (Movement for Solidarity) on 1 March 1970.^[163]

Ahead of the December1970 Pakistani general election,Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Asghar Khan were among several leaders who declared that, if elected, they would reclaimIndian-administered Kashmir by force.^[164] Khan ran for a seat in theNational Assembly of Pakistan in the election, withNW-26 Rawalpindi-I as his constituency, he thought its large voting population, connected to the armed forces, would value the contributions of the former Air Marshal. He was the runner-up with 28,209 votes.^[165][166]

Following the arrest ofSheikh Mujibur Rahman as part ofOperation Searchlight in March 1971, Asghar Khan spearheaded protests demanding his release from prison.^[167]The New York Times reported that Khan offered a "conciliatory program" focused on major development efforts inEast Pakistan and genuine political freedom for its people, but it was completely censored. On 8 October, he announced his withdrawal from theby-election, stating that no candidate could run unless they had access to the press to reach the public. "Today is a black day for democracy in Pakistan," he said, "when even I, with a mild program breaking no martial-law regulations, am frozen out." After thePakistan Army occupiedEast Pakistan and banned theAwami League, the election was effectively annulled. Some elected assemblymen were cleared by the army to take their seats, but most had fled to India or joined theguerrillas.^[168]

In November 1971, Khan was one of the 42 signatories, includingFaiz Ahmed Faiz, who urgedPresident Yahya Khan to release Sheikh Mujiubur Rahman.^[169][170] Additionally, Asghar Khan demanded for a public trial of Yahya Khan for his role in theBengali genocide.^[171][172]

By January 1972, Asghar Khan was the first to call for Pakistan's recognition ofBangladesh. In response,President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto called Khan a traitor.^[169] In March, Asghar Khan had described President Bhutto as, "a livingYazid".^[173] On 20 June, Asghar Khan accused Bhutto of advising formerPresident Yahya Khan to use military force inEast Pakistan.^[174]

On 10 July, President Bhutto sent Ghulam Qadir Bhutto with 70 armed men who seized and looted Khan's 242 acre farm inSukkur at 10:30am.^[175] President Bhutto's cousin, theChief Minister of SindhMumtaz Bhutto while addressing the Sindh Assembly, said that the Government had nothing to do with the incident. A few weeks later, Khan's home inAbbottabad was burned down, garnering significant public attention. Despite a police investigation, the findings were never disclosed, and Khan's family was forced to live in a stable.^{[176][177][178]}

While addressing lawyers of the Peshawar Bar Association on 6 November, Asghar Khan accused Bhutto of allowing PakistaniPrisoners of War of1971 to remain in India so that he could use their return to his advantage in the next elections.^[179] On 30 November, Asghar Khan was attacked by the police and wounded while he was on his way toMultan to investigate the death of a student in a demonstration.^[180]

Khwaja Mohammed Rafique, a prominent politician who was the president of the right-wing Pakistan Unity Party, former chief of thePakistan Democratic Party, and the father ofKhawaja Saad Rafique, was fatally shot by unidentified attackers inLahore on 20 December 1972. He was on his way home after participating in a procession organised byTehreek-e-Istiqlal, which was led by Asghar Khan. The demonstration, protested primarily against inflation and was held to mark a "black day" on the first anniversary ofZulfikar Ali Bhutto's presidency.^[181] Khan described Rafique's "murder in broad daylight, under the very nose of the police", as a "shocking act of gangsterism," and accused Bhutto's government of "aiding and encouraging armed hooligans".^[182]

In 1974, Asghar Khan suggested that Pakistan form a defence pact with China in order to combat a potential nuclear threat from India.^[183]

Asghar Khan was detained byPrime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto'sFederal Security Force on 1 December 1974. This occurred because Bhutto, who was on a political tour, wanted to prevent Khan from holding rallies.^[184] In response, Tehreek-e-Istiqlal threatened to organise demonstrations at Pakistani embassies worldwide to protest the unlawful detention of their leader. On 17 December,Ahmad Raza Khan Kasuri informed the National Assembly that Asghar Khan had been forcibly confined in a house in Hyderabad, Sindh for the past four days, with 100 security personnel surrounding the premises.^[185][186]

General Ayub Khan, Bhutto, andGeneral Zia-ul-Haq notably placed Asghar Khan under house arrest, with his detention under General Zia lasting 1,603 days.^[187]

Throughout his reign,Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto attempted to have Asghar Khan,Ghulam Mustafa Khar,^[188]Shah Ahmad Noorani, andSherbaz Khan Mazari assassinated.^[189]

On 23 May 1973, Asghar Khan had boarded aPakistan International Airlines flight at Quetta Airport, when all passengers were instructed to disembark and identify their luggage. One suitcase went unclaimed. Khan was informed that this procedure was implemented due to reports that a suitcase containing a bomb had been loaded onto the aircraft. The suitcase was neither opened nor inspected in the presence of passengers and despite widespread media coverage of the incident, the government provided no explanation.^[19][190]

On 26 July 1973, Asghar Khan's vehicle was chased by armed men in a jeep and two trucks. One of the men fired shots at Khan. Shortly afterwards, the press discovered that the jeep was registered in the name of Inspector GeneralSindh Police, Chaudhary Fazal-e-Haq.^[19]

In 1975 onPakistan Day, a reception was arranged at theLahore Railway Station for Asghar Khan as he was passing through the city. TheFederal Security Force (FSF), Bhutto'ssecret police, arranged for a bomb to be planted in the train. FSF Agent Riaz was caught in the act by the police. However, the FSF had exerted pressure leading to his eventual release.^[191]

Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto announced on 7 January 1977 that new elections would be held on 7 March. In preparation, Khan was instrumental in organising thePakistan National Alliance (PNA), a group of parties opposed to Bhutto and his government.^[192] Approaching the election date, Khan gained recognition as the most prominent opposition leader.^[193][194]

The Pakistan Times was ordered by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to air propaganda and "expose" Asghar Khan. However, as the campaign developed, Bhutto called it off saying he didn't want a full-scale campaign against Khan because "that will be stupid and give him importance and blow him up", instead he directed that Khan should be "exposed surreptitiously and casually, without building a media campaign against him." In another attempt, he desired that Khan should be portrayed as a "joker" so that the people should learn through the press "that we have a clown in our midst." Asghar Khan was therefore spared from an orchestrated campaign although like other opposition leaders, he was continuously subjected tocharacter assassination and slanderous attacks by the media. On occasion, false and fabricated reports were planted in the press about him.^[195]

During discussions, it was concluded that the opposition parties were too divided to present a united front against the People's Party. Asghar Khan was approached bySherbaz Khan Mazari andAbdul Ghafoor Ahmed to join theUnited Democratic Front (UDF) but declined due to previous negative experiences with alliances. Despite efforts, Asghar Khan and Maulana Noorani only agreed to meet other UDF leaders. They set conditions for joining that mainly concerned the allocation of seats. Bhutto aimed to prevent Asghar Khan from gaining a leadership position within the opposition alliance, eventually securingMufti Mehmood as the head of the PNA.Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and his advisers were overly confident, believing there was no threat in any alliance that wasn't led by Asghar Khan. In their view, any such alliance was insignificant compared to thePakistan People's Party (PPP).^[196]

In preparations for the election, Asghar Khan and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, traded barbs with each other, with Khan calling him a rat from Larkana who "could not recite a single verse from theQuran and yet claimed to be a good Muslim". Khan further attacked Bhutto by saying, "With full responsibility I say that Bhutto is not a Muslim. In Peshawar, I challenge him that if he offers theNamaz on T.V. within ten days, I shall retire from the contest. Since 1 February, MaulanaEhtisham ul Haq Thanvi, has been teaching him Namaz, but he has not been able to learn it".^[197]

Asghar Khan attracted massive crowds during rallies leading up to the1977 general election, with theBBC reporting that over 1.6 million people attended his rally in February.^[19] While speaking at an election rally inRawalpindi on 4 February, Asghar Khan criticised the economic policies of theGovernment of Pakistan and said that the extravagance on the governments part was responsible for the rising prices in the country. He cited examples of government overspending and said that 80 percent of the industry was at a standstill after thetakeover of industrial units by the Government, which discouraged investment.^[198]

In March, Khan won the election in NA-13 Abbottabad-II with 35,711 votes and in NA-190 Karachi VIII with 44,252 votes, securing a seat in the6th National Assembly.^{[199][200][201]} He had contested the election in multiple constituencies, including NA-1 Peshawar,^[202] NA-38 Rawalpindi, and NA-12 Abbottabad, finishing second in all three with 34,040, 40,037, and 26,954 votes, respectively.^{[203][204][205]}

Following the riots after the elections, which the opposition stated were rigged,^[206] widespread protests erupted across Pakistan, resulting in the deaths of 85 people and the imposition of martial law byPrime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Asghar Khan, who was imprisoned shortly after, refused to leave jail until Bhutto resigned, all political prisoners were released, and the government lifted a seven-year state of emergency.^{[207][208][209]} On 9 April 1977, Khan's wife Amina Shamsie, was arrested while participating in a women's procession in Lahore and beaten up by the police, receiving injuries and was imprisoned for a day. A few days later, Amina was arrested at another procession in Rawalpindi and kept for three weeks in detention in Dadar,Mansehra. Asghar Khan was lodged in the same room when he was arrested.^[210]

On 1 May, in a statement smuggled out ofSihala jail, Asghar Khan declared that thePakistan National Alliance (PNA) would not compromise on its demand for Prime Minister Bhutto's resignation or the holding of new elections. He also urged thearmy to defy orders issued by what he called the "illegal" government. On 6 May, theInterior Ministry announced it was considering legal action against Asghar Khan forsedition, as well as against his wife, who was suspected of smuggling out his statement. She was placed under house arrest on 10 May.^[211] Then, on 12 May, Prime Minister Bhutto accused Asghar Khan ofhigh treason during a speech in the National Assembly.^[212]

While imprisoned inKot Lakhpat Jail, Asghar Khan read a newspaper report about a Pakistan Army Major who had executed a boy for making aV sign towards him on 21 May 1977, during the martial law imposed by Prime Minister Bhutto. This incident prompted him to write a letter condemning the army's actions and urging officers to discern between lawful and unlawful commands amid Bhutto's severe crackdown on nationwide protests against the rigged March 1977 elections.^[213][214] Khan further said, "It is not your duty to support his illegal regime nor can you be called upon to kill your own people so that he can continue in office a little longer. Let it not be said that the Pakistan armed forces are a degenerate police force fit only for killing unarmed civilians."^[215] His remarks were misinterpreted as a call for military intervention, as two months later,General Zia-ul-Haq would carry out the1977 Pakistani military coup that overthrew Bhutto's government.

In September 1979,President Zia-ul-Haq placed Asghar Khan under house arrest. He was released on 18 March 1980 by the courts. Following this, Khan called for the overthrow of President Zia, and referred to him as "a usurper who led a ruthless junta which ruled by deceit and lies... General Zia and army rule must be replaced. Zia has no intention of letting democracy function. Any general who might replace him will be the same... As long as this junta remains in power, this country suffers".^[216][217] Asghar Khan was seen as a possible successor to President Zia after he promised to restore to a civilian government in 1979.^[218]

In April 1980,Ghaus Bakhsh Bizenjo proposed a joint manifesto as part of an anti-government alliance between hisNational Party and Asghar Khan'sTehreek-e-Istiqlal. The draft manifesto, submitted for Khan's approval, sought to limit the central government's authority to defence, foreign affairs, communications, and currency—while allowing provincial units the right tosecede ifIslamabad violated their constitutional rights.^[219] Before Khan could respond, he was arrested by police inKarachi on 7 May 1980 for calling for the overthrow ofGeneral Zia-ul-Haq's regime.^[217] In the meantime, Bizenjo circulated copies of the draft, which was never published, to a small circle ofBaluch leaders.^[219]

Asghar Khan was released on 29 May and exiled from Karachi. Upon arriving inPeshawar, he was arrested again. The provincial government announced his detention without providing any reason, and he was denied access to a lawyer until 26 June. Initially held at his Abbottabad home, he was moved to Dadar sub-jail on 6 August, where he remained in solitary confinement until 3 October. Due to his worsening health, he was transferred back to Abbottabad and treated at the local military hospital, where his immediate family was allowed to visit him. By late 1981, he remained in detention under Martial Law Order 78, andAmnesty International recognised him as a prisoner of conscience.^[217]

General Zia-ul-Haq amended the constitution to block any legal challenges to his military courts and martial law government on 29 May 1980.^[220] Opposition party leaders, including senior members of Asghar Khan'sTehreek-e-Istiqlal were arrested under Martial Law Order No. 78 on 5 August 1980.^[221][222]

In February 1981, Asghar Khan andNasim Wali Khan came together to form theMovement for the Restoration of Democracy, a political alliance againstGeneral Zia-ul-Haq.^[223]

On 1 October 1984, the Government of theNorth-West Frontier Province released Asghar Khan,Naseerullah Babar, andAftab Ahmad Khan Sherpao. Reportedly, they were the only political detainees in the province.^[224]

Governor of Sindh, Lt GeneralJahan Dad Khan, imposed a 30-day ban on Asghar Khan's entry intoSindh effective 14 October 1984,^[19] the day Khan was released from five years of house arrest.^[225][226] Asghar Khan had planned to start an eight-day tour of Sindh fromSukkur on 20 October, and then travel toQuetta andPunjab. Consequently, he revised his itinerary to visit various cities in theNorth-West Frontier Province at the end of October instead.^[227]

In 1985, Asghar Khan warned that Pakistan's emerging drug mafia could influence the upcoming general election if precautions were not taken.^[228] In April, Khan said that Pakistan could not afford to maintain permanent hostility with theSoviet Union and should begin dialogue with theBabrak Karmal government in Afghanistan. He contended thatGeneral Zia-ul-Haq could not reject such talks on the grounds that the Kabul regime lacked legitimacy, as both Karmal and Zia were, in his words, "sailing in the same boat."^[229]

Following the elections, Khan traveled toKabul on 29 August 1987 and met withPresident Dr. Najibullah in September 1987, amid rising tensions betweenAfghanistan–Pakistan. TheGovernment of Pakistan referred to Khan as "Brutus" for opposing the state narrative and campaigning for friendship between the two countries.^[230][231] Prior to his visit, Khan had demanded direct talks between the two countries and severely criticised Pakistan's growing subservience to theUnited States.^[232]

A few days before theDeath of Zia-ul-Haq in August 1988, Asghar Khan joined forces withBenazir Bhutto.^[233] Khan was the runner-up in the1990 general election for the National Assembly seat NA-95 (Lahore) receiving 39,585 votes, losing toNawaz Sharif.^[234] The election results were heavily influenced by rigging, with Nawaz securing victory through the support of PresidentGhulam Ishaq Khan, GeneralsAslam Beg,Hamid Gul,Asad Durrani, and theInter-Services Intelligence, who worked to buy the loyalties of various politicians.^{[235][236][237][238][87]}

Asghar Khan'sTehrik-e-Istiqlal (TI) was among three parties who merged to form the Qaumi Jamhoori Party (QJP) led by his son,Omar Asghar Khan, on 4 December 2001.^[239]

On 25 October 2003, as President of the Qaumi Jamhoori Party (QJP), Asghar Khan met with Indian peace activistNirmala Deshpande, who was accompanied byAbdul Rashid Shaheen, a member of theLok Sabha, and PakistaniMNAs Chaudhry Manzoor Ahmed andQamar Zaman Kaira. He welcomed their visit and underscored the importance of such exchanges. He also praised Deshpande's efforts in fostering people-to-people connections and expressed hope that both governments would respond positively.^[240]

Welcoming the Indian government's 12-point announcement and calling it a step toward reducing tensions between the two nuclear rivals in South Asia, Asghar Khan expressed hope that such initiatives could build confidence between India and Pakistan and make travel between the two easier. However, Khan reiterated his long-held position on Kashmir,^[241] advocating for its independence with both India and Pakistan sharing responsibility for its defence. He stressed that without sincere efforts from both sides to engage in meaningful dialogue, any improvement in relations would be short-lived.^[240]

Asghar Khan wrote several books throughout his life and was the chief patron of the Defence Journal in Pakistan.^[242]

In March 1998,Bangladesh demanded that Pakistan apologise for theBengali genocide committed by thePakistan Army and their collaborators. As President of the Pakistan National Conference, Asghar Khan supportedDhaka's move and stated that Pakistan would never be able to absolve itself from the "tragedy ofEast Pakistan" despite a lapse of 27 years.^[243]

In July 1998, Asghar Khan,Nur Khan, andSaeedullah Khan, were among 63 retired Pakistani, Indian, and Bengali armed forces personnel who signed an agreement urging Pakistan and India to refrain from developing nuclear weapons. Instead, they advocated for limiting nuclear research and development strictly to peaceful and beneficial purposes. They also called for the two countries to resolve their disputes through peaceful means and address their real problems of poverty and backwardness, rather than wasting their scarce resources on acquiring means of destruction.^{[244][245][246]}

Asghar Khan launched his book,We've Learnt Nothing from History —Pakistan: Politics and Military Power, on 1 July 2005 at a ceremony inKarachi. Others in attendance includedSherbaz Khan Mazari,Ardeshir Cowasjee, andAbdul Hafeez Shaikh.^[247]

On 20 April 2009, at a ceremony held at theMarriott hotel inIslamabad, the Jinnah Society posthumously awarded the 2007 Jinnah Award toAhmad Ali Khan, former Chief Editor ofDawn, while the 2006 award went to Asghar Khan, in honour of his 'exceptional contributions to democracy and human rights in Pakistan.'^[6][5]

In his acceptance speech, Khan expressed gratitude to the ceremony's organisers for the award. He then addressed the societal challenges that deviated fromMohammad Ali Jinnah's vision for the country: "What we have done since 1948 is not the vision of the Quaid. It has rapidly led us to civil war. The United States and (General) Zia played a major role in mobilising the youths of the NWFP against the Soviets. The results can be seen today.. Pakistan has been led at different times by acknowledged criminals."^[6]

He further advocated for reducing the national defence budget and said, "The criminal misuse of Pakistan's natural resources has cost Pakistan dearly. We must have a close look at our defence expenditure." Khan was openly critical of the country's nuclear program, remarking that it had "endangered Pakistan's very survival," while the Pakistan Army's spokesperson Maj. Gen.Athar Abbas was present in the audience.^[6]

After theKilling of Osama bin Laden in Asghar Khan's hometown ofAbbottabad in 2011, he toldNewsweek Pakistan, "I was surprised. I don't think anyone knew about it, but they should have known. Here was this man living inside the cantonment and not a soul had a clue. Arabs in the middle of Abbottabad! Yet, no one knew for five or six years. The level of incompetence is fantastic."^[150] A year later, whenNewsline asked him about the incident, he replied, "That was a very odd thing that happened, odd that nobody knew about it. I wonder what is taking the commission [investigating the incident] so long. And what ofMemogate? I don't understand what's going on."^[46]

On 20 October 2011, at the launch ceremony forImran Khan's book,Pakistan: A Personal History, Asghar Khan took the podium and stated:

"In the last over 60 years, India has never attacked Pakistan, as it can't afford it. Indians know well, if Pakistan is destroyed, they will be the next target, It was made our problem that one day India would invade us. But we did so four times and the first attack was on Kashmir, where Maharaja was not prepared to accede to India for he wanted to join Pakistan and waited for this for 21 days...Indian forces came to East Pakistan when people were being slaughtered there. Moreover, again at Kargil, Indian never mounted an assault."

He further remarked that the majority in Pakistan voted for corrupt politicians, as they too sought to have their work accomplished "by hook or by crook." He recalled his dismay upon learning years prior that, inPunjab, 20,000 individuals with criminal records had been recruited into thePunjab Police, while a significant number ofdacoits were hired into theSindh Police.^[248]

Asghar Khan merged his party,Tehrik-e-Istiqlal withPakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) on 12 December 2011 and announced his full support forImran Khan. He praised Imran for his efforts, endorsing him as the last hope for Pakistan's survival. Asghar stated, "There is panic all around the country. The price hike is touching the skies. The country's economy is on the verge of collapse. People want change, and the PTI is the only party that can provide that".^[249][250]

• Mohammad Asghar Khan (May 1967).Obituary note for Air Commodore Masroor Hosain.
• Pakistan at the Cross Roads. Karachi: Ferozsons. 1969.OCLC 116825.
• "MESSAGE: To The Officers Of The Defence Services of Pakistan". 21 May 1977.
• The First Round, Indo-Pakistan War 1965. Sahibabad: Vikas. 1979.ISBN 0-7069-0978-X.
• Generals in Politics. New Delhi: Vikas. 1983.ISBN 0-7069-2215-8.
• Islam, Politics, and the State: The Pakistan Experience. Zed Books. 1985.ISBN 0-86232-471-8.
• The Lighter side of the Power Game. Lahore: Jang Publishers. 1985.OCLC 15107608.
• We've Learnt Nothing from History. Karachi:Oxford University Press. 2005.ISBN 0-19-597883-8.
• My Political Struggle. Karachi:Oxford University Press. 2008.ISBN 978-0-19-547620-0.
• Milestones in a Political Journey. Islamabad: Dost Publications. 2009.ISBN 978-9694963556.

• Mohammad Asghar Khan (1969).Shaheen-e-Millat. Lahore.OCLC 11262262.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Sada-i-Hosh. Lahore: Jang Publishers. 1985.OCLC 14214332.
• Chehray nahi Nizam ko Badlo. Islamabad: Dost Publications. 1998.ISBN 978-9694960401.
• Islam – Jamhooriat aur Pakistan. Islamabad: Dost Publications. 1999.ISBN 978-9694960852.
• Ye Batain Hakim Logon Ki. Islamabad: Dost Publications. 1999.ISBN 978-9694960876.

At the age of 96, Asghar Khan died at 6:00 AMPKT on 5 January 2018, atCMH Rawalpindi fromCardiac arrest.^[251]

He was admitted to intensive care on 30 December 2017 after his health deteriorated; he had been suffering fromacute respiratory infection,dementia, andischemic heart disease. He was given astate funeral by theGovernment of Pakistan which was attended by Prime MinisterShahid Khaqan Abbasi, GeneralZubair Mahmood Hayat, Air Chief MarshalSohail Aman, AdmiralZafar Mahmood Abbasi, Federal Ministers, several former chiefs of the Air Force, government officials, bureaucrats, and the general public. Afterwards, the coffin was transported via helicopter to his native village ofNawan Shehr, where Asghar Khan was buried beside his sonOmar.^{[252][253][254]}

A formation of fourK-8 Karakorum's and fourT-37 Tweet's from thePAF Academy presented a fly past in honour of Khan, flying themissing man formation.^[255]

Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf ChairmanImran Khan shared his condolences on Twitter: "Saddened to learn of Air Chief Marshal Asghar Khan's death early this morning. He transformed the PAF and was a man of steadfast principles and integrity. My prayers and condolences go to his family".^[256]

RetiredAir Commodore Sajad Haider paid tribute to Asghar Khan, whom he regarded as one of the "greatest sons of the soil." Haider described him as an "unparalleled commander-in-chief," who earned the "respect and admiration of all those he led through his qualities of vision, courage, integrity, honesty, and strict dedication to discipline". Haider recalled that under Khan's leadership, Flt Lt M. Yunisshot down an Indian spy bomber that violated Pakistani airspace in 1959. The early air defence system Khan prioritised proved effective, resulting in Yunis bringing the bomber down at 40,000 feet, which was noted as being far beyond the operational capability of PAF fighters, with both the Indian pilot and navigator ejecting from their aircraft and taken into custody. Haider said that the indomitable spirit instilled by Asghar Khan propelled the Air Force during theIndo-Pakistani War of 1965 and that the air force would continue to build upon the solid foundations he laid.^[257]

The spokesperson of thePakistan Army, Major GeneralAsif Ghafoor said, "COAS expresses his grief on the sad demise of ex Air Chief, Air Marshal Asghar Khan, Retired. An iconic soldier who will be remembered for his historic contributions for laying foundations of a strong Pakistan Air Force. May Allah bless his soul-Ameen".^[258]

Former pilot Peter A. Thatcher, recalled a near-death experience in 1962 during his second solo flight at the Peshawar Flying Club. While flying at 1,000 feet, four Canberra bombers nearly collided with him, narrowly dipping below his plane. Later, as he approached the runway with zero visibility, another Canberra came close to crashing into him. Shaken but alive, Thatcher landed safely. A confrontation with an angry Air Marshal Asghar Khan followed, but his instructor, Hyder Hassan Rizvi, a retired IAF squadron leader, intervened and convinced Khan that the tower was at fault. Thatcher later met Khan at a dinner party, where they laughed about the incident. He also remembered the air marshal's stance on Pakistan's nuclear program, suggesting that the country would be safer without nukes, though acknowledging Pakistan would never give them up.^[257]

Retired PAF officer Aijazuddin recalled joining theRPAF Flying Training School in 1947/48, when Asghar Khan was the Commandant. In a tribute to Khan, he described him as a principled and resolute leader, and noted that he embodied the qualities of a complete officer and expressed his condolences to the family.^[257]

On 23 March 2017, at a ceremony with Khan as the chief guest, the PAF Academy was renamed toPakistan Air Force Academy Asghar Khan. The event was attended byChief of Air StaffSohail Aman, alongside former air chiefs, war veterans, and serving officers.^[259]

The auditorium at thePakistan International Airlines training center, located at the airlines head office inKarachi, was renamed to Asghar Khan Auditorium and inaugurated byMaulana Tariq Jameel on 19 December 2019.^[260]

Insignia	Rank	Date
	Air Marshal	5 November 1958[81]
	Air Vice Marshal	23 July 1957[84]
	Air Commodore	17 April 1954[73]
	Group Captain	1949[261]
	Wing Commander	15 September 1947
	Squadron Leader	28 August 1945[11]
	Flight Lieutenant	1 October 1944[11]
	Flying Officer	3 April 1942[11]
	Pilot Officer	22 December 1940[11]
	Second Lieutenant	3 January 1940[40]

• Order of Aeronautical Merit (Spain) (1957)^[262][263]
• Hilal-e-Quaid-e-Azam (1958)^[264][265]
• Nishan-i-Taj (1959)^[266]
• Certificate of Supersonic Recognition: Order ofF-104 Starfighters (1960)^[98]
• Order of the Crown of Thailand (1962)^[267]
• Hilal-i-Pakistan (1962)^[265]
• Gold Medal Human Rights Society of Pakistan (1985)^[4]
• Jinnah Award (2006)^[b]

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