However, ascetics maintain that self-imposed constraints bring them greater freedom in various areas of their lives, such as increased clarity of thought and the ability to resist potentially destructive temptations. Asceticism is seen in some ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the frugal is plenty.[6] Inversely, several ancient religious traditions, such asZoroastrianism,Ancient Egyptian religion,[11] theDionysian Mysteries, andvāmācāra (left-handedHinduTantrism), abstain from ascetic practices and focus on various types of good deeds in the world and the importance of family life.
The adjective "ascetic" derives from the ancient Greek termáskēsis, which means "training" or "exercise".[12] The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the physical training required for athletic events.[4] Its usage later extended to rigorous practices used in many major religious traditions, in varying degrees, to attain redemption and higherspirituality.[13]
"Natural asceticism" involves a lifestyle that reduces material aspects of life to the utmost simplicity and to a minimum. This may include minimal, simple clothing, sleeping on a floor or in caves, and eating a simple, minimal amount of food.[14] Natural asceticism, stated Wimbush and Valantasis, does not include maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer.[14]
"Unnatural asceticism", in contrast, covers practices that go further, including body mortification, punishing one's own flesh, and habitual self-infliction of pain, such as sleeping on a bed of nails.[14]
Self-discipline andabstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious and spiritual traditions. Ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, andfakirs inAbrahamic religions, andbhikkhus,munis,sannyasis, vairagis, goswamis, andyogis in Indian religions.[15][16]
In theBaháʼí Faith, according toShoghi Effendi, the maintenance of a high standard of moral conduct is neither to be associated nor confused with any form of extreme asceticism, nor of excessive and bigoted puritanism. The religious standard set byBaháʼu'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, seeks under no circumstances to deny anyone the legitimate right and privilege to derive the fullest advantage and benefit from the manifold joys, beauties, and pleasures with which the world has been so plentifully enriched byGod, who Baháʼís regard as an all-loving creator.[17]: 44
According to Britishhistorian andRoman Catholic theologianRichard Finn, much of early Christian asceticism has been traced toearly Judaism, not to Ancient Greek asceticism.[6] Some of the ascetic thought in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, has roots inAncient Greek philosophy.[6] Virtuous living is often considered incompatible with a strong craving for bodily pleasures driven by desire and passion. In ancient theology, morality is typically viewed not merely as a balance between right and wrong, but as a form of spiritual transformation. In this perspective, simplicity is regarded as sufficient, inner bliss is valued, and frugality is seen as abundant.[6]
Sexual abstinence, as practiced byEncratites sect of Christianity, for example, was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. Other ascetic practices have included simple living, begging,[24] andfasting, as well asethical practices like humility, compassion,meditation, patience, andprayer.[25] Evidence of extreme asceticism in Christianity appears in second-century texts and thereafter in both Eastern and Western Christian traditions, including the practices of chaining one's body to rocks, eating only grass,[26] praying seated on a pillar in the elements (e.g., the monkSimeon Stylites,[27] solitary confinement inside a cell, abandoning personal hygiene and adopting lifestyle of a beast,mortification of the flesh, and voluntary suffering.[24][28] Nevertheless, said practices were often rejected as beyond acceptable by ascetics likeBarsanuphius of Gaza andJohn the Prophet.[29] Ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts ofsin andredemption.[30][31]
The ascetic literature of early Christianity was influenced by paganGreek philosophical traditions, especially those ofPlato andAristotle, which sought the perfectspiritual way of life.[32] According toClement of Alexandria, philosophy and scriptures can be seen as "double expressions of one pattern of knowledge".[33] According to Evagrius, "body and the soul are there to help the intellect and not to hinder it".[34]Evagrius Ponticus (345–399CE) was a highly educated monastic teacher who produced a large theological body of work,[33] mainly ascetic, including theGnostikos (Ancient Greek:γνωστικός,gnōstikos, "learned", fromγνῶσις,gnōsis, "knowledge"), also known asThe Gnostic: To the One Made Worthy of Gnosis. TheGnostikos is the second volume of a trilogy containing thePraktikos, intended for young monks seekingapatheia (i.e., "a state of calm which is the prerequisite for love and knowledge"),[33] which would purify their intellect and make it impassible, revealing the truth hidden in every being. The third book,Kephalaia Gnostika, was meant for meditation by advanced monks. Those writings made him one of the most recognized ascetic teachers and scriptural interpreters of his time,[33] which included Clement of Alexandria andOrigen.
Asceticism has not been a dominant theme withinJudaism, but minor to significant ascetic traditions have been a part ofJewishspirituality.[61] The history of Jewish asceticism is traceable to the 1st millennium BCE with the references of theNazirites, whose rules of practice are found inBook of Numbers 6:1–21.[62] The ascetic practices included not cutting the hair, abstaining from eating meat or grapes, abstention from wine, or fasting and hermit style living conditions for a period of time.[62] Literary evidence suggests that this tradition continued for a long time, well into the common era, and both Jewish men and women could follow the ascetic path, with examples such as the ascetic practices for fourteen years by QueenHelena of Adiabene, and by Miriam of Tadmor.[62][63] After the Jews returned from theBabylonian exile and the Mosaic institution was done away with, a different form of asceticism arose whenAntiochus IV Epiphanes threatened the Jewish religion in 167 BCE. TheEssene tradition of theSecond Temple period is described as one of the movements within historic Jewish asceticism between 2nd century BCE and 1st century CE.[64]
TheAshkenazi Hasidim (Hebrew:חסידי אשכנז,romanized: Chassidei Ashkenaz) were a Jewish mystical, ascetic movement in theGermanRhineland whose practices are documented in the texts of the 12th and 13th centuries.[65] Peter Meister states that this Jewish asceticism emerged in the 10th century, grew much wider with prevalence inSouthern Europe and theMiddle East through the Jewish pietistic movement.[66] According to Shimon Shokek, these ascetic practices were the result of an influence of medieval Christianity on Ashkenazi Hasidism. The Jewish faithful of this Hasidic tradition practiced the punishment of the body, self-torture by starvation, sitting in the open in freezing snow, or in the sun with fleas in summer, all with the goal of purifying the soul and turning one's attention away from the body unto the soul.[65]
Ascetic Jewish sects existed in ancient and medieval era times,[67] most notably theEssenes. According toAllan Nadler, Professor Emeritus of Religious Studies and Former Director of the Jewish Studies Program atDrew University, two most significant examples of medieval Jewish asceticism have been the Havoth ha-Levavoth andChassidei Ashkenaz.[61] Pious self-deprivation was a part of the dualism andmysticism in these ascetic groups. This voluntary separation from the world was calledPerishuth, and the Jewish society widely accepted this tradition in the late medieval era.[61] Extreme forms of ascetic practices have been opposed or controversial in the Hasidic movement.[68]
Another significant school of Jewish asceticism appeared in the 16th century, led fromSafed.[69] These mystics engaged in radical material abstentions andself-mortification with the belief that this helps them transcend the created material world, reach and exist in the mystical spiritual world. A studied example of this group wasHayyim ben Joseph Vital, and their rules of ascetic lifestyle (Hanhagoth) are documented.[61][70]
Asceticism is found in both non-theistic and theistic traditions withinIndian religions. The origins of the practice are ancient, and a heritage shared by the three major Indian religions:Buddhism,Hinduism, andJainism. They are referred to by many names, such as Sadhu, Pravrajita, Bhikshu, Yati, etc.[71]
Asceticism in Indian religions includes a spectrum of diverse practices, ranging from the mild self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living typical of Buddhism, Hinduism, andJainism,[72][73] to more severe austerities and self-mortification practices of monks in Jainism and now extinctAjivikas in the pursuit of salvation.[74] Some ascetics live as hermits relying on whatever food they can find in the forests, then sleep and meditate in caves; others travel from one holy site to another while sustaining their body by begging for food; yet others live in monasteries as monks or nuns.[75] Some ascetics live like priests and preachers, other ascetics are armed and militant,[75] to resist anypersecution—a phenomenon that emerged after theMuslim invasions of India during theMiddle Ages.[76][77] Self-torture is a relatively uncommon practice but one that attracts public attention. In Indian traditions such as Buddhism and Hinduism, self-mortification is typically criticized.[75] However, Indian mythologies also describe numerous ascetic gods or demons who pursued harsh austerities for decades or centuries that helped each gain special powers.[78]
Thehistorical Buddha (c. 5th century BCE) adopted an extreme ascetic life in search of enlightenment.[1][80] However, after enlightenment he rejected extreme asceticism in favor of a more moderated version, the "Middle Way".[1][81] The Buddha defined his teaching as "the Middle Way" (Pāli:majjhimāpaṭipadā). In theDharmacakrapravartana Sūtra, this is used to refer to the fact that his teachings steer a middle course between the extremes ofasceticism and bodily denial (as practiced by theJains and other Indian ascetic groups) and sensualhedonism or indulgence. ManyŚramaṇa ascetics of the Buddha's time placed much emphasis on a denial of the body, using practices such asfasting, to liberate the mind from the body.Gautama Buddha, however, realized that the mind was embodied and causally dependent on the body, and therefore that a malnourished body did not allow the mind to be trained and developed.[82] Thus, Buddhism's main concern is not with luxury or poverty, but instead with the human response to circumstances.[83]
Another related teaching of the historical Buddha is "the teaching through the middle" (majjhena dhammaṃ desana), which claims to be a metaphysical middle path between the extremes ofeternalism andannihilationism, as well as the extremes of existence and non-existence.[84][85] This idea would become central to later Buddhist metaphysics, as all Buddhist philosophies would claim to steer a metaphysical middle course.
According toHajime Nakamura and other scholars, some early Buddhist texts suggest that asceticism was a part of Buddhist practice in its early days.[81][86] Further, in practice, records from about the start of the common era through the 19th century suggest that asceticism continued to be a part of Buddhism, both inTheravada andMahayana traditions.
Textual evidence suggests that ascetic practices were a part of the Buddhist tradition inSri Lanka by the third century BCE, and this tradition continued through the medieval era in parallel tosangha style monastic tradition.[87]
In the Theravada tradition ofThailand, medieval texts report of ascetic monks who wander and dwell in the forest or crematory alone, do austere practices, and these came to be known asThudong.[88][89] Ascetic Buddhist monks have been and continue to be found inMyanmar, and as in Thailand, they are known to pursue their own version of Buddhism, resisting the hierarchical institutionalizedsangha structure of monasteries in Buddhism.[90]
In the Mahayana tradition, asceticism with esoteric and mystical meanings became an accepted practice, such as in the Tendai and Shingon schools of Japanese Buddhism.[87] These Japanese practices included penance, austerities, ablutions under a waterfall, and rituals to purify oneself.[87] Japanese records from the 12th century record stories of monks undertaking severe asceticism, while records suggest that 19th-centuryNichiren Buddhist monks woke up at midnight or 2:00 am daily, and performed ascetic water purification rituals under cold waterfalls.[87] Other practices include the extreme ascetic practices of eating only pine needles, resins, seeds and ultimately self-mummification, while alive, orSokushinbutsu (miira) in Japan.[91][92][93]
In Chinese Buddhism, self-mummification ascetic practices were less common but recorded in theCh'an (Zen Buddhism) tradition there.[94] More ancient Chinese Buddhist asceticism, somewhat similar toSokushinbutsu are also known, such as the public self-immolation (self-cremation, as shaoshen 燒身 or zifen 自焚)[95] practice, aimed at abandoning the impermanent body.[note 1] The earliest-documented ascetic Buddhist monk biography is of Fayu (法羽) in 396 CE, followed by more than fifty documented cases in the centuries that followed including that of monk Daodu (道度).[98][99] This was considered as evidence of a renunciantbodhisattva, and may have been inspired by the Jataka tales wherein the Buddha in his earlier lives immolates himself to assist other living beings,[100] or by theBhaiṣajyaguruvaiḍūryaprabhārāja-related teachings in theLotus Sutra.[101] Historical records suggest that the self-immolation practices were observed by nuns in Chinese Buddhism as well.[102]
The Chinese Buddhist asceticism practices, states James Benn, were not an adaptation or import of Indian ascetic practices, but an invention of Chinese Buddhists, based on their unique interpretations ofSaddharmapuṇḍarīka orLotus Sūtra.[103] It may be an adoption of more ancient pre-Buddhist Chinese practices,[104][105] or fromTaoism.[102] It is unclear if self-immolation was limited primarily to Chinese asceticism tradition, and strong evidence of it being a part of a large scale, comprehensive ascetic program among Chinese Buddhists is lacking.[97]
Renunciation from worldly life and a pursuit of spiritual life, either as a part of a monastic community or as a hermit, has been a historic tradition of Hinduism since ancient times. The renunciation tradition is calledSannyasa, and this is not the same as asceticism—which typically connotes severe self-denial and self-mortification.Sannyasa often involved a simple life, one with minimal or no material possessions, study, meditation and ethical living. Those who undertook this lifestyle were calledSannyasi,Sadhu,Yati,[106]Bhiksu,Pravrajita/Pravrajitā[107] and Parivrajaka in Hindu texts.[108] The term with a meaning closer to asceticism in Hindu texts isTapas, but it too spans a spectrum of meanings ranging from inner heat, to self-mortification and penance with austerities, to meditation and self-discipline.[73][109][110]
The 11th century literary workYatidharmasamuccaya is a Vaishnava text that summarizes ascetic practices in Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism.[111] In Hindu traditions, as with other Indian religions, both men and women have historically participated in a diverse spectrum of ascetic practices.[10]
Asceticism-like practices are hinted at in theVedas, but these hymns have been variously interpreted as referring to earlyYogis and loner renouncers. One such mention is in the Kesin hymn of theRigveda, whereKeśins ("long-haired" ascetics) and Munis ("silent ones") are described.[112][113] These Kesins of the Vedic era, are described as follows by Karel Werner:[114]
The Keśin does not live a normal life of convention. His hair and beard grow longer, he spends long periods of time in absorption, musing and meditating and therefore he is called "sage" (muni). They wear clothes made of yellow rags fluttering in the wind, or perhaps more likely, they go naked, clad only in the yellow dust of the Indian soil. But their personalities are not bound to earth, for they follow the path of the mysterious wind when the gods enter them. He is someone lost in thoughts: he is miles away.
— Karel Werner (1977), "Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn"[114]
The Vedic and Upanishadic texts of Hinduism, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, do not discuss self-inflicted pain, but do discuss self-restraint and self-control.[115] The monastic tradition of Hinduism is evidenced in first millennium BCE, particularly in itsAdvaita Vedanta tradition. This is evidenced by the oldest Sannyasa Upanishads, because all of them have a strong Advaita Vedanta outlook.[116] Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and nondualism (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy.[117][118] The 12th-centuryShatyayaniya Upanishad is a significant exception, which presents qualified dualistic andVaishnavism (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) philosophy.[118][119] These texts mention a simple, ethical lifestyle but do not mention self-torture or body mortification. For example:
These are the vows a Sannyasi must keep:
Abstention from injuring living beings, truthfulness, abstention from appropriating the property of others, abstention from sex, liberality (kindness, gentleness) are the major vows. There are five minor vows: abstention from anger, obedience towards the guru, avoidance of rashness, cleanliness, and purity in eating. He should beg (for food) without annoying others, any food he gets he must compassionately share a portion with other living beings, sprinkling the remainder with water he should eat it as if it were a medicine.
Similarly, theNirvana Upanishad asserts that the Hindu ascetic should hold, according toPatrick Olivelle, that "the sky is his belief, his knowledge is of the absolute, union is his initiation, compassion alone is his pastime, bliss is his garland, the cave of solitude is his fellowship", and so on, as he proceeds in his effort to gain self-knowledge (or soul-knowledge) and its identity with the Hindu metaphysical concept ofBrahman.[121] Other behavioral characteristics of theSannyasi include:ahimsa (non-violence),akrodha (not become angry even if you are abused by others),[122] disarmament (no weapons), chastity, bachelorhood (no marriage), avyati (non-desirous), amati (poverty), self-restraint, truthfulness, sarvabhutahita (kindness to all creatures),asteya (non-stealing),aparigraha (non-acceptance of gifts, non-possessiveness) andshaucha (purity of body speech and mind).[123][124]
In theBhagavad Gita, verse 17.5 criticizes a form of asceticism that diverges from scriptural guidance and is driven by pride, ego, or attachment, rather than for genuine spiritual growth. Verse 17.6 extends the criticism of such ascetic practices, noting that they are considered harmful to both the practitioner's body and the divine within. With these two verses,Krishna emphasizes that true ascetic practices should align with scriptural teachings and aim towards higher spiritual goals.[125]
Some people who undertake acts of austerity perform ferocious deeds not sanctioned by scripture. They are motivated by hypocrisy and egotism, and are beset by the power of desire and passion.
Asceticism in one of its most intense forms can be found inJainism. Ascetic life may include nakedness symbolizing non-possession of even clothes, fasting, body mortification, penance and other austerities, in order to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed in Jainism to be essential for reachingsiddha andmoksha (liberation from rebirths, salvation).[126][127][128] In Jainism, the ultimate goal of life is to achieve the liberation of soul from endless cycle of rebirths (moksha fromsamsara), which requires ethical living and asceticism. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be traced back toMahavira, the twenty-fourthTirthankara who practiced 12 years of asceticism before reaching enlightenment.[129][130]
Jain texts such asTattvartha Sutra andUttaradhyayana Sutra discuss ascetic austerities to great lengths and formulations. Six outer and six inner practices are most common, and often repeated in later Jain texts.[131] According to John Cort, outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).[132] Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body.[132]
The Jain text ofKalpa Sūtra describes Mahavira's asceticism in detail, whose life is a source of guidance on most of the ascetic practices in Jainism:[133]
The Venerable Ascetic Mahavira for a year and a month wore clothes; after that time he walked about naked, and accepted the alms in the hollow of his hand. For more than twelve years the Venerable Ascetic Mahivira neglected his body and abandoned the care of it; he with equanimity bore, underwent, and suffered all pleasant or unpleasant occurrences arising from divine powers, men, or animals.
— Kalpa Sutra 117
Both Mahavira and his ancient Jaina followers are described in Jainism texts as practicing body mortification and being abused by animals as well as people, but never retaliating and never initiating harm or injury (ahimsa) to any other being.[134] With such ascetic practices, he burnt off his pastKarma, gained spiritual knowledge, and became aJina.[134] These austere practices are part of the monastic path in Jainism.[135] The practice of body mortification is calledkaya klesha in Jainism and is found in verse 9.19 of theTattvartha Sutra byUmaswati, the most authoritative, oldest surviving Jaina philosophical text.[136][137]
In Jain monastic practice, the monks and nuns take ascetic vows after renouncing all relations and possessions. The vows include a complete commitment to nonviolence (Ahimsa). They travel from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and always barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for more than two months to prevent attachment to any place.[138][139] However, during the four months of monsoon (rainy season) known aschaturmaas, they stay at a single place to avoid killing life forms that thrive during the rains.[140] Jain monks and nuns practice complete celibacy. They do not touch or share a sitting platform with a person of the opposite sex.[citation needed]
Jain ascetics follow a strictvegetarian diet without root vegetables. Prof. Pushpendra K. Jain explains:
Clearly enough, to procure such vegetables and fruits, one must pull out the plant from the root, thus destroying the entire plant, and with it all the other micro organisms around the root. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be plucked only when ripe and ready to fall off, or ideally after they have fallen off the plant. In case they are plucked from the plants, only as much as required should be procured and consumed without waste.[141]
The monks ofŚvetāmbara sub-tradition within Jainism do not cook food but solicit alms from householders.Digambara monks have only a single meal a day.[142] Neither group will beg for food, but a Jain ascetic may accept a meal from a householder, provided that the latter is pure of mind and body and offers the food of his own volition and in the prescribed manner. During such an encounter, the monk remains standing and eats only a measured amount. A routine feature of Jain asceticism is fasting periods, where adherents abstain from consuming food, and sometimes water, only during daylight hours, for up to 30 days. Some monks avoid (or limit) medicine or hospitalization out of disregard for the physical body.[141]
Śvētāmbara monks and nuns wear only unstitched white robes (an upper and lower garment), and own one bowl they use for eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara sect monks do not wear any clothes, carry nothing with them except a soft broom made of shed peacock feathers (pinchi) to gently remove any insect or living creature in their way or bowl, and they eat with their hands.[142] They sleep on the floor without blankets and sit on wooden platforms. Other austerities include meditation in seated or standing posture near riverbanks in the cold wind, or meditation atop hills and mountains, especially at noon when the sun is at its fiercest.[143] Such austerities are undertaken according to the physical and mental limits of the individual ascetic.
When death is imminent from an advanced age or terminal disease, many Jain ascetics take a final vow ofSanthara orSallekhana, a fast to peaceful and detached death, by first reducing intake of and then ultimately abandoning all medicines, food, and water.[144] Scholars state that this ascetic practice is not suicide, but a form of natural death, done without passion or turmoil or suddenness, and because it is done without active violence to the body.[144]
WhileSikhism treatslust as a vice, it has at the same time unmistakably pointed out that man must share the moral responsibility by leading the life of a householder. What is important is to be God-centred. According to Sikhism, ascetics are certainly not on the right path.[145] WhenGuru Nanak visitedGorakhmata, he discussed the true meaning of asceticism with some yogis:[146]
Asceticism doesn't lie in ascetic robes, or in walking staff, nor in the ashes. Asceticism doesn't lie in the earring, nor in the shaven head, nor blowing a conch. Asceticism lies in remaining pure amidst impurities. Asceticism doesn't lie in mere words; He is an ascetic who treats everyone alike. Asceticism doesn't lie in visiting burial places, It lies not in wandering about, nor in bathing at places of pilgrimage. Asceticism is to remain pure amidst impurities.
In Inca religion of medieval South America, asceticism was practiced.[147] The high priests of the Inca people lived an ascetic life, which included fasting, chastity and eating simple food.[148] TheJesuit records report Christian missionaries encountering ascetic Inca hermits in the Andean mountains.[149]
Historical evidence suggests that the monastic tradition inTaoism practiced asceticism, and the most common ascetic practices included fasting, complete sexual abstinence, self-imposed poverty, sleep deprivation, and secluding oneself in the wilderness.[150][151] More extreme and unnatural ascetic Taoist practices have included public self-drowning and self-cremation.[152] The goal of this spectrum of practices, like in other religions, was to reach the divine and get past the mortal body.[153] According to Stephen Eskildsen, asceticism continues to be a part of modern Taoism.[154][155]
InZoroastrianism, active participation in life through good thoughts, good words and good deeds is necessary to ensure happiness and to keep the chaos at bay. Thisactive participation is a central element inZoroaster's concept offree will. In theAvesta, the sacred scriptures of Zoroastrianism, fasting andmortification are forbidden.[156]
Early 20th-century German sociologistMax Weber made a distinction betweeninnerweltliche andausserweltliche asceticism, which means (roughly) "inside the world" and "outside the world", respectively.Talcott Parsons translated these as "worldly" and "otherworldly"—however, some translators use "inner-worldly", and this is more in line with inner world explorations of mysticism, a common purpose of asceticism. "Inner- or Other-worldly" asceticism is practised by people who withdraw from the world to live an ascetic life (this includes monks who live communally in monasteries, as well as hermits who live alone). "Worldly" asceticism refers to people who live ascetic lives but do not withdraw from the world:
Wealth is thus bad ethically only in so far as it is a temptation to idleness and sinful enjoyment of life, and its acquisition is bad only when it is with the purpose of later living merrily and without care.
— Max Weber[157], The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
Weber claimed this distinction originated in theProtestant Reformation, but later became secularized, so the concept can be applied to both religious and secular ascetics.[158]
The 20th-century American psychological theoristDavid McClelland suggested worldly asceticism specifically targets worldly pleasures that "distract" people from their calling, and may accept worldly pleasures that are not distracting. As an example, he pointed outQuakers have historically objected to bright-coloured clothing, but wealthy Quakers often made their drab clothing out of expensive materials. The color was considered distracting, but the materials were not.Amish groups use similar criteria to make decisions about which modern technologies to use and which to avoid.[159]
In the third essay ("What Do Ascetic Ideals Mean?")[160] from his 1887 bookOn the Genealogy of Morals,Friedrich Nietzsche[161] discusses what he terms the "ascetic ideal" and its role in the formulation of morality along with the history of the will. In the essay, Nietzsche describes how such a paradoxical action as asceticism might serve the interests of life: through asceticism, one can overcome one's desire to perish from pain and despair and attain mastery over oneself. In this way, one can express bothressentiment and thewill to power. Nietzsche describes the morality of the ascetic priest as characterized byChristianity as one where, finding oneself in pain or despair and desiring to perish from it, the will to live causes one to place oneself in a state of hibernation and denial of the material world in order to minimize that pain and thus preserve life, a technique which Nietzsche locates at the very origin of secular science as well as of religion. He associated the "ascetic ideal" with Christiandecadence.[162][163][164]
Asceticism is not always life-denying or pleasure-denying. Some ascetic practices have actually been carried out as disciplines of pleasure.Epicurus taught a philosophy of pleasure, but he also engaged in ascetic practices like fasting. This may have been done in the service of testing the limits of nature, of desires, of pleasure, and of his own body. In the eighth of hisPrincipal Doctrines, Epicurus says that we sometimes choose pains if greater pleasures ensue from them, or avoid pleasures if greater pains ensue, and in the "autarchy" portion of hisLetter to Menoeceus, he teaches that living frugally can help us to better enjoy luxuries when we have them.
^abcLaumakis, Stephen J. (2023) [2018]."Chapter 3: The Basic Teachings of the Buddha".An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge Introductions to Philosophy (2nd ed.).Cambridge andNew York:Cambridge University Press. p. 48.doi:10.1017/9781009337076.005.ISBN9781009337076.Having lived and experienced both the excesses and deficiencies of the extremes of pleasure and deprivation,the Buddha was painfully aware of their debilitating consequences. On the one hand, the pleasurable excesses of his princely life were not satisfying for at least two reasons: while enjoying them he was poignantly aware of their imminent passing, and while not enjoying them he found himself longing for what he knew could not truly satisfy him because of their inherent transience. On the other hand, his experiments with extreme ascetic practices left him physically emaciated and mentally unfulfilled. Moreover, these practices failed to produce their advertised goals and promised ends; they left him both mentally distracted and physically enfeebled. So, his followers insisted that one of the most basic teachings of the "Awakened One" was his insistence on the "Middle Way" between the two extremes of pleasure and pain.
^William Cook (2008), Francis of Assisi: The Way of Poverty and Humility, Wipf and Stock Publishers,ISBN978-1556357305, p. 46–47.
^Randall Collins (2000), The sociology of philosophies: a global theory of intellectual change, Harvard University Press,ISBN978-0674001879, p. 204.
^ab"Asceticism".Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved9 January 2021.
^Wilson, John A. (1969). "Egyptian Secular Songs and Poems". Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 467.
^abWylie, J. A. (1880).History of the Waldenses. Cornell University Library. London, New York [etc.]: Cassell & Company.
^For a study of the continuation of this early tradition in the Middle Ages, see Marina Miladinov,Margins of Solitude: Eremitism in Central Europe between East and West (Zagreb: Leykam International, 2008).
^Chin, Catherine M. (2013)."Who is the Ascetic Exegete?". In Weidemann, Hans-Ulrich (ed.).Asceticism and Exegesis in Early Christianity: The Reception of New Testament Texts in Ancient Ascetic Discourses. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus/Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments. Vol. 10.Göttingen:Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 203–218.ISBN978-3-525-59358-5.
^Macy, Gary (1984).The theologies of the Eucharist in the early scholastic period: a study of the salvific function of the sacrament according to the theologians, c. 1080 – c. 1220.Oxford:Clarendon Press.ISBN978-0-19-826669-3.
^Ruthven, Malise (2006).Islam in the World.New York:Oxford University Press. p. 153.ISBN978-0-19-530503-6.Themisogynism in Islam may perhaps be partly attributed to the absence of outlets for celibacy. Ascetical tendencies are usually strong among the pious: the whole history of Western religions illustrates an intimate connection between religious enthusiasm and sexual repression. In Islam, however, celibacy was explicitly discouraged both by the Prophet's own example and by the famoushadith, "There is no monasticism in Islam – the monasticism (rahbaniya) of my community is thejihad".
^Panjvani, Cyrus; Buddhism: A Philosophical Approach (2013), p. 29
^Swearer, Donald K. Ethics, wealth, and salvation: A study in Buddhist social ethics. Edited by Russell F. Sizemore. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990. (from the introduction)
^Wallis, Glenn (2007)Basic Teachings of the Buddha: A New Translation and Compilation, With a Guide to Reading the Texts, p. 114.
^Taylor, James (1993).Forest Monks and the Nation State: An Anthropological and Historical Study in Northeastern Thailand. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.ISBN981-3016-49-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^James A. Benn (2012), Multiple Meanings of Buddhist Self-Immolation in China – A Historical Perspective,Revue des Études Tibétaines, no. 25, p. 205.
^Shufen, Liu (2000). "Death and the Degeneration of Life Exposure of the Corpse in Medieval Chinese Buddhism".Journal of Chinese Religions.28 (1):1–30.doi:10.1179/073776900805306720.
^abJames A. Benn (2012), Multiple Meanings of Buddhist Self-Immolation in China – A Historical Perspective,Revue des Études Tibétaines, no. 25, p. 211.
^James A. Benn (2012), Multiple Meanings of Buddhist Self-Immolation in China – A Historical Perspective,Revue des Études Tibétaines, no. 25, pp. 203–212,Quote: "Of all the forms of self-immolation, auto-cremation in particular seems to have been primarily created by medieval Chinese Buddhists. Rather than being a continuation or adaptation of an Indian practice (although there were Indians who burned themselves), as far as we can tell, auto-cremation was constructed on Chinese soil and drew on range of influences such as a particular interpretation of an Indian Buddhist scripture (the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka or Lotus Sūtra) along with indigenous traditions, such as burning the body to bring rain, that long pre-dated the arrival of Buddhism in China."
^James A. Benn (2012), Multiple Meanings of Buddhist Self-Immolation in China – A Historical Perspective,Revue des Études Tibétaines, no. 25, p. 207.
^abWerner, Karel (1977). "Yoga and the Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of the Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136)".Religious Studies.13 (3):289–302.doi:10.1017/S0034412500010076.S2CID170592174.
^W. R. Garrett (1992), The Ascetic Conundrum: The Confucian Ethic and Taoism in Chinese Culture, in William Swatos (ed.), Twentieth-Century World Religious Movements in Neo-Weberian Perspective,Lewiston, New York:Edwin Mellen PressISBN978-0773495500, pp. 21–30.
^"Asceticism".Encyclopædia Britannica. RetrievedJune 21, 2004.In Zoroastrianism (founded by the Persian prophet Zoroaster, seventh century bc), there is officially no place for asceticism. In the Avesta, the sacred scriptures of Zoroastrianism, fasting and mortification are forbidden, but ascetics were not entirely absent even in Persia.
^Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1887).The genealogy of morals. Robarts – University of Toronto. New York : Boni and Liveright.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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