The arts in thePhilippines reflect a range of artistic influences on the country's culture, including indigenous art. Philippine art consists of two branches: traditional[1] and non-traditional art.[2] Each branch is divided into categories and subcategories.
TheNational Commission for Culture and the Arts, the cultural agency of the Philippine government, has categorized Filipino arts as traditional and non-traditional. Each category has sub-categories.
Folk architecture – including stilt, land, and aerial houses.
Maritime transport – boat houses, boat-making, and maritime traditions.
Weaving – including back-strap loom weaving and other, related forms of weaving.
Carving – including woodcarving and folk non-clay sculpture.
Folk performing arts – including dances, plays, and dramas.
Folk (oral) literature – including epics, songs, and myths.
Folk graphic and plastic arts – including calligraphy, tattooing, writing, drawing, and painting
Ornaments – including mask-making, accessory-making, ornamental metal crafts
Textile (fiber) art – including headgear weaving, basketry, and fishing gear
Pottery – including ceramics, clay pots and sculpture
Other artistic expressions of traditional culture – including non-ornamental metal crafts, martial arts, supernatural healing arts, medicinal arts, and constellation traditions
Traditional arts in the Philippines include folk architecture, maritime transport, weaving, carving, folk performing arts, folk (oral) literature, folk graphic and plastic arts, ornaments, textile or fiber art, pottery, and other artistic expressions of traditional culture.[1] Traditional artists or groups of artists receive theNational Living Treasures Award (Gawad Manlilikha ng Bayan Award (GAMABA)) for their contributions to the country's intangible cultural heritage.
Ethnomedicine is one of the oldest traditional arts in the Philippines. Traditions (and objects associated with them) are performed by medical artisans and shamans. Practices, grounded on the physical elements, are an ancient science and art. Herbal remedies, complementing mental, emotional, and spiritual techniques, are also part of many traditions as well. The category was added to the GAMABA in 2020.[3]
Folk architecture in the Philippines varies by ethnic group, and structures are made ofbamboo, wood,rock,coral,rattan, grass, and other materials. They include the hut-stylebahay kubo, highland houses (known asbale) with four to eight sides, the coral houses ofBatanes which protect from the area's harsh, sandy winds, the royaltorogan (engraved with an intricateokir motif) and palaces such as theDarul Jambangan (Palace of Flowers), the residence of the sultan of Sulu before colonization. Folk architecture also includes religious buildings, generally calledspirit houses, which are shrines to protective spirits or gods.[4][5][6] Most are open-air, house-like buildings made of native materials.[7][4] Some were originally pagoda-like (a style continued by natives who converted to Islam), and are now rare.[8] Other buildings have indigenous and Hispanic motifs (bahay na bato architecture and its prototypes). Manybahay na bato buildings are inVigan, aWorld Heritage Site.[9] Folk structures range from simple, sacred stick stands to indigenous castles or fortresses (such as Batanes'ijangs and geological alterations such as theRice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras (another World Heritage Site).[10][11][12][13]
Painting of shamanhood and ethnomedicine, including rituals
Weaving is an ancient art form, and each ethnic group has a distinct weaving technique.[39] The weaving arts include basket weaving, back-strap loom weaving, headgear weaving, and fishnet weaving.
Valuable textiles are made with aback strap loom.[40] Fibers such as cotton,abaca, banana fiber, grass, and palm are used in Filipino weaving.[41] There are a number of types of woven cloth. Pinilian is an Ilocano cotton cloth woven with apangablan, usingbinakul,binetwagan, ortinumballitan styles. Bontoc weave emphasizes the concept of centeredness, key to the culture of theBontoc people. The weave begins with the sides (langkit), followed by thepa-ikid (side panels),fatawil (warp bands), andshukyong (arrows). Thesinamaki weaving then begins, incorporating atinagtakho (human figure),minatmata (diamond), andtinitiko (zigzag). The last is the center (pa-khawa), with thekan-ay (supplementary weft). Kalinga textiles contain geometric designs; one motif is a lozenge pattern known asinata-ata.Piña is considered the finest indigenous Filipino textile.Aklanon textiles are used in national costumes.Hablon is the textile of theKaray-a andHiligaynon peoples. Tapestry woven by theYakan people uses thebunga-sama supplementary weft weave, thesiniluan warp-floating pattern, theinalaman supplementary-weft technique, and thepinantupan weft-band pattern.Blaan weaving depicts crocodiles and curls. TheMandaya use a mud-dye technique. Meranaw textiles are used for themalong and other Maranao clothing.T'nalak is a Tboli textile.[42] The oldest knownikat textile in Southeast Asia is theBanton cloth, dating to the 13th to 14th centuries.[43]
Unlike cloth weaving with a loom, mats are woven by hand. They are woven in cool shade, and are kept cool to preserve their integrity. An example is thebanig of Basey, where its weavers usually work in a cave. Fibers include banana, grass, and palm.[44]
Panel made of silk, piña, and metallic threads (1800s)
Baskets have intricate designs, styles and forms for specific purposes, such as harvesting, rice storage, traveling, and sword storage.Basket weaving is believed to have arrived with north-to-south human migration. Some of the finest baskets made are fromPalawan, in the southwest. Materials vary by ethnic group, and include bamboo, rattan, pandan, cotton tassels, beeswax,abacá, bark, and dyes. Basketry patterns include closed crossed-over underweave, closed bamboo double-twill weave, and a spaced rattan pentagon pattern. Products include thetupil (lunch box),bukug (basket),kabil (carrying basket),uppig (lunch basket),tagga-i (rice basket),bay'ung (basket pouch),lig-o (winnowing tray), andbinga (bag).[45][46] Weaving traditions have been influenced by modern demands.[47]
Woven headpieces are common, and cultures use a variety of fibers to create headgear such as theIvatanvakul and the snake headpiece of theBontoc.[48] Woven fish traps are a specialty of theIlocano people.[49] Broom weaving is another tradition, exemplified by theKalinga people.[50]
The Philippines has Buddhist artifacts[51][52] with Vajrayāna influence,[53][54][better source needed][55] most of which date to the ninth century and reflect the iconography of the Śrīvijayan empire. They were produced from the Agusan-Surigao area onMindanao toCebu,Palawan, andLuzon.
TheAgusan image is a 2 kg (4.4 lb), 21-karat gold statuette found in 1917 on the Wawa River nearEsperanza,Agusan del Sur,Mindanao,[56] dates to the ninth or tenth centuries. The image is commonly known as the Golden Tara, an allusion to its reported[57] identity as an image of a BuddhistTara. The figure, about 178 mm (7.0 in)[58] tall, is of a female Hindu or Buddhist deity sitting cross-legged and wearing a headdress and other ornaments. It is on display in theField Museum of Natural History in Chicago.[58][59][60] A bronze statue ofLokesvara was found in Isla Puting Bato inTondo, Manila.[61]
An image of theBuddha was moulded on a clay medallion in bas-relief in the municipality of Calatagan. It reportedly resembles iconographic depictions of the Buddha inSiam, India, andNepal: in atribhanga[62] pose inside an ovalnimbus. Scholars have noted aMahayanic orientation in the image, since the boddhisattvaAvalokiteśvara is also shown.[63]
Another gold artifact, from theTabon Caves in the island ofPalawan, is an image ofGaruda, the bird who is the mount ofVishnu. The Hindu imagery and gold artifacts in the caves has been linked to those inOc Eo, in theMekong Delta of southernVietnam. Crude bronze statues of the Hindu deityGanesha were found byHenry Otley Beyer in 1921 inPuerto Princesa, Palawan, and inMactan,Cebu. The statues were produced locally.[61] A bronze statue of Avalokiteśvara was also excavated that year by Beyer in Mactan.[61] A goldKinnara was found in Surigao. Other gold relics include rings (some with images ofNandi),jewellery chains, inscribed gold sheets, and gold plaques withrepoussé images of Hindu deities.[64][65]
Indigenous woodcarving by some ethnic groups dates to before the Hispanic arrival; the oldest may be fragments of a wooden boat dating to 320 AD.[68] A variety of woods are used to make wood crafts, which include bululs.[69][70] These wooden figures, known by a number of names, are found from north Luzon to southern Mindanao.[71] Woodokir is crafted by ethnic groups in Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago.[72][73] Wood crafts of objects such as sword hilts and musical instruments depict ancient, mythical beings.[74][75] Indigenous wood-crafting techniques have been utilized in Hispanic woodcarvings after colonization, such as inPaete.[76][77]
Religious Hispanic woodcarvings were introduced with Christianity, and are a fusion of indigenous and Hispanic styles. Paete is a center of religious Hispanic woodcarving.[76] Such woodcarving also exists in many municipalities, where most crafts depict the life of Jesus and theVirgin Mary.[78]
Stone carving predates Western colonization.[79] Carvings may represent an ancestor or a deity who helps the spirit of a loved one enter the afterlife.[80] Ancient carved burial urns have been found in many areas, notably in the Cotabato region.[81] TheLimestone tombs of Kamhantik, in Quezon province, are thought to initially have rock covers and were sarcophagi. They are believed to have been originally roofed, as evidenced by holes where beams have been placed.[82] Stone grave marks are carved withokir motifs to aid the dead.[83] Mountainsides are carved to form burial caves, especially in the highlands of northern Luzon; theKabayan Mummies are an example.[84] Marble carvings are centered inRomblon, and most (primarily Buddhist statues and related works) are exported.[85] With the arrival of Christianity, stone carvings became widespread; most are church facades or statues, or statues and other crafts for personal altars.[86] A notable stone carving is the facade ofMiagao Church.[87]
Ivory carving has been practiced in the Philippines for a millennium; its oldest known ivory artifact is theButuan Ivory Seal, dated to the ninth to 12th centuries.[88]Ivory religious carvings (locally known asgaring) became widespread after ivory was imported to the Philippines from Asia, where carvings focused on Christian themes such as the Madonna and child, the Christ child, and the Sorrowful Mother.[89] Many of the ivory carvings from the Philippines have gold and silver designs.[89] The Filipino ivory trade has boomed because of the demand for carvings,[90] but the government has cracked down on the illegal trade. In 2013, the Philippines was the first country to destroy its ivory stock; the ivory trade has decimated the world's elephant and rhinoceros populations.[91] Horns of deadcarabaos have substituted for ivory in the country for centuries.[92]
Folk dances, plays, and dramas are performed. Each ethnic group has its own heritage, and Filipino folk performing arts also have Spanish and American influences. Some dances are related to those in neighboring Austronesian and other Asian countries.[93] Folk performing arts include the banga, manmanok, ragragsakan, tarektek, uyaoy (or uyauy),[94]pangalay, asik,singkil,sagayan, kapa malong malong,[95] binaylan, sugod uno, dugso, kinugsik kugsik, siring, pagdiwata,maglalatik,tinikling,subli,cariñosa, kuratsa, and pandanggo sa ilaw.[96][97][98][99] Folk dramas and plays are based on popular epics such asHinilawod,[100] and the Senakulo is a popular drama with Hispanic groups.[101][102]
Folk (oral) literature includes the epics, songs, myths, and other oral literature of Filipino ethnic groups. The country's poetry is rich in metaphors.[103]Tanaga poetry has a 7777 syllable count, and its rhyme forms range from dual rhymes to none.[103]Awit poetry has 12-syllable quatrains, with rhyming similar to thePasyon[104][105] chanted in thepabasa.[106] Another awit is the 1838Florante at Laura.[107]Dalit poetry contains four lines of eight syllables each.[108]Ambahan poetry consists of seven-syllable lines with rhythmic end syllables, often chanted and sometimes written on bamboo.[109]Balagtasan is a debate in verse.[110] Other poems includeA la juventud filipina,[111] andAko'y may alaga.[112][113]
Epic poems include the 17-cycle, 72,000-lineDarangen of the Maranao[114] and theHinilawod.[115] Others includeBiag ni Lam-Ang,Ibalon,Hudhud,Alim, theUlalim cycle,Lumalindaw,Kudaman, theAgyu Cycle,Tulelangan,Gumao of Dumalinao,Ag Tubig Nog Keboklagan,Keg Sumba Neg Sandayo, andTudbulul.[116]Filipino Sign Language is used to pass on oral literature to the hearing-impaired.[117] Folk literature is documented by scholars in manuscripts, tapes, and video recordings.[118][119]
The Philippines has a number of indigenous scripts collectively known assuyat, each of which has its owncalligraphy. Since 16th-century Spanish colonization, ethnolinguistic groups have used the scripts in a variety of media. By the end of the colonial era, only four suyat scripts survived and continue to be used: theHanunó'o andBuhid scripts and those of theTagbanwa andPalawan peoples. All four were inscribed in theUNESCOMemory of the World Programme asPhilippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Buid, Tagbanua and Pala’wan) in 1999.[120]
Folk drawing has been known for thousands of years. The oldest folk drawings are rock drawings and engravings which include theAngono Petroglyphs inRizal, created during the Neolithic (6000 to 2000 BC). The drawings have been interpreted as religious, with infant drawings to relieve sickness in children.[132] Another petroglyph is inAlab (Bontoc), dated as not later than 1500 BC and containing fertility symbols such as thepudenda. Ancientpetrographs are also found; those inPeñablanca andSingnapan are drawn with charcoal, and those inAnda (Bohol) are drawn with redhematite.[133] Recently discovered petrographs inMonreal (Ticao) include drawings of monkeys, human faces, worms (or snakes), plants, dragonflies, and birds.[134]
Evidence indicates that indigenous Filipinos have been painting and glazing pottery for thousands of years. Pigments used for painting range from gold, yellow, reddish-purple, green, white, and blue-green to blue.[135] Statues and other creations have also been painted with a variety of colors. Painting on skin is practiced, especially by the Yakan people.[136]
Tattooing was introduced by theAustronesian peoples thousands of years ago, and it developed into cultural symbols in a number of ethnic groups.[137][138][139] It was first documented the 16th century, with the bravestPintados (people of central and eastern Visayas) the most tattooed. Similar tattooed peoples were theBicolanos ofCamarines and theTagalogs ofMarinduque.[140][141][142] Tattooed people inMindanao include theManobo, whose tattoo tradition is known aspang-o-túb.[143][144] The T'boli also tattoo their skin in the belief that the tattoos glow after death, guiding the soul in its journey to the afterlife.[145] The best-known tattooed people may have been theIgorot people of highland Luzon. OnlyTinglayan inKalinga has traditional tattoo artists craftingbatok; they were headed by master tattooist and Kalinga matriarchWhang-od.[146][147] Traditional tattooing has experienced a revival after centuries of decline.[148]
Glass art is found in places such as Pinagbayanan.[149]Stained glass has been a feature of many churches since Spanish colonization. European craftspeople initially produced stained glass, with Filipinos beginning to join the craft during the 20th century.[150] TheManila Cathedral contains a number of stained-glass windows.[151][better source needed] Other glass art includes chandeliers and sculptures.[152]
The gourd-basedtabungaw ofAbra andIlocos Region is an example of hat-making.[153] Indigenous hats were widely worn until the 20th century (when they were replaced by Western styles), and are currently worn for festivals, rituals, or theatre.[48][154]
Mask-making is an indigenous and imported tradition; some communities made masks before colonization, and other mask-making traditions were introduced by trade with Asia and the West. These masks are primarily worn during theMoriones andMassKara Festivals.[155][156][157] Puppet-making is a related art whose products are used in plays and festivals such as theHigantes Festival.[158] Most indigenous masks are made of wood, and gold masks (made for the dead) were common in theVisayas region before Spanish colonization. Masks made of bamboo and paper, used inLucban depict the typical Filipino farming family. Masks inMarinduque are used in pantomime; those inBacolod depict egalitarian values, regardless of economic standards. Masks are worn in theatrical epics, especially those related to theRamayana and theMahabharata.[159]
Accessories are generally worn with clothing, and some are accessories for houses, altars, and other objects. Of the Philippines' over 100 ethnic groups, the most accessorized may be the Kalinga people.[160] TheGaddang people also use many accessories.[161] The best-known accessory is thelingling-o, a pendant or amulet used from Batanes in the north to Palawan in the south.[162][163] The oldest knownlingling-o has been dated to 500 BC and is made ofnephrite.[163] Shells have also traditionally been used for accessories.[164]
Gold is crafted by Filipino ethnic groups, and the country's best-knowngoldsmiths came fromButuan.Regalia, jewelry, ceremonial weapons, tooth ornamentation, and ritualistic and funerary objects made of high-quality gold have been found at a number of sites, and the archipelago's gold culture flourished between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. Some gold-crafting techniques were lost in colonization, but techniques influenced by other cultures have been adopted by Filipino goldsmiths.[165][166]
Ornamental metal crafts are metal-based products used to beautify something else, metal or non-metal, and those made by the Maranao inTugaya are valued. Metal crafts by the Moro people decorate a variety of objects, and are inscribed with theokir motif.[167] Metal crafts also decorate religious objects such as altars, Christian statues, andvestments.Apalit, inPampanga, is a center of the craft.[168] Gold has been used in a number of ornaments, and most which survive are human accessories with elaborate, ancient designs.[165]
Pottery (ceramics, clay, and folk clay sculpture) has been part of Filipino culture for about 3,500 years.[169] Notable artifacts include theManunggul Jar (890–710 BCE)[170] andMaitum anthropomorphic pottery (5 BC-225 AD).[171] High-fired pottery was first made around 1,000 years ago, leading to a ceramic age in the Philippines.[135] Ceramics were traded, and pottery and fragments from the Arab world (possibly Egypt) and East Asia have been found.[135] Specific jars were also traded directly to Japan.[172] Before colonization during the 16th century, foreignporcelain was popular in a number of communities; according to oral tradition fromCebu, indigenous porcelain was produced at the time of Cebu's early rulers.[173] The earliest known indigenous porcelain has been dated to the 1900s, however; porcelain found at Filipino archaeological sites was labeled "imported", which has become a subject of controversy. Filipinos worked as porcelain artisans in Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, re-introducing the craft in the Philippines. All but one porcelain artifact from the era survived World War II.[174] Notable folk clay art includesThe Triumph of Science over Death (1890)[175] andMother's Revenge (1894),[176] and popular pottery includes thetapayan andpalayok. Pottery-making has received recent media attention.[177][178]
Philippine ceramic (100-1400 CE)
Calatagan Pot withsuyat calligraphy (14th-15th century)
Other traditional arts, including non-ornamental metal crafts, martial arts, supernatural healing arts, medicinal arts, and constellation traditions, cannot be specifically categorized.
Non-ornamental metal crafts are metal products with simple, utilitarian designs. TheMoro people are known for their metalwork, which is usually decorated with theokir motif.[179]Baguio is also a center for metalwork.[180] Hispanic metal crafts are common in the lowlands. They include large bells, and Asia's largest bell is atPanay Church.[181] Metal deities, notably of gold, are also found.[165][182]
Filipino martial arts vary by ethnic group. The best-known isarnis (also known as kali and eskrima) (the country'snational sport and martial art), which hasweapon-based fighting styles withsticks,knives,bladed andimprovised weapons and open-hand techniques. Arnis has changed over time, and was also known asestoque,estocada, andgarrote during Spanish colonization. The Spanish recorded it as calledpaccalicali-t by theIbanags,didya (orkabaroan) by theIlocanos,sitbatan orkalirongan by thePangasinenses,sinawali ("to weave") by theKapampangans,calis orpananandata ("use of weapons") by the Tagalogs,pagaradman by theIlonggos, andkaliradman by theCebuanos.[185]
Filipino cuisine encompasses the country's more than 100ethnolinguistic groups. Most mainstream dishes are from the Bikol, Chavacano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano,Kapampangan, Maranao, Pangasinan, Cebuano (or Bisaya), Tagalog, and Waray groups. The style of cooking and the associated foods have evolved over centuries from theirAustronesian origins to a mixed cuisine withIndian,Chinese,Spanish, andAmerican influences.[193] Dishes range the simple, such as fried salted fish and rice, to complexpaellas andcocidos for Spanish fiestas. Popular dishes includelechón[194] (whole roasted pig),longganisa (Philippine sausage),tapa (cured beef),torta (omelette),adobo (chicken or porkbraised in garlic, vinegar, oil andsoy sauce, or cooked until dry),kaldereta (meat stewed in tomato sauce),mechado (fatty beef in a soy-tomato sauce),puchero (beef in a banana-and-tomato sauce),afritada (chicken or pork simmered in tomato sauce with vegetables),kare-kare (oxtail and vegetables cooked inpeanut sauce),pinakbet (kabocha squash, eggplant, beans, okra, and tomato stew flavored with shrimp paste),crispy pata (deep-fried pig's leg),hamonado (pork sweetened in pineapple sauce),sinigang (meat or seafood in a sour broth),pancit (noodles), andlumpia (fresh or fried spring rolls).[195]
Shell crafts are common, due to the variety of mollusk shells available. The country's shell industry emphasizes crafts made ofcapiz shells, which are seen in a variety of products includingcapiz-shell windows, statues, and lamps.[164] Lantern-making is also a traditional art form which began after the introduction of Christianity, and many lanterns (locally known asparol) are in Filipino streets and in front of houses for the Christmas season (which begins in September and ends in January, the world's longest Christmas season). TheGiant Lantern Festival, which also celebrates Christmas, features large lanterns made by Filipino artisans.[196]Pyrotechnics are popular during the New Year celebrations and the Christmas season. The Philippines has hosted thePhilippine International Pyromusical Competition, the world's largest pyrotechnic competition (previously known as the World Pyro Olympics) since 2010.[197]
Lacquerware is a less-common art form. Filipino researchers are studying the possibility of turning coconut oil into lacquer.[198][199][200] Paper arts are common in many communities; examples include thetakapapier-mâché of Laguna and thepabalat of Bulacan.[201] A form of leaf-folding art is puni, which uses palm leaves to create forms such as birds and insects.[201]
Bamboo art is also common, with products including kitchen utensils, toys, furniture, and musical instruments such as the Las PiñasBamboo Organ (the world's only organ made of bamboo).[202] Inbulakaykay, bamboo is bristled to create large arches.[201]Floristry is popular for festivals, birthdays, andUndas.[203] Leaf speech (language and meaning) is popular among the Dumagat people, who use leaves to express themselves and send secret messages.[204]
Shamanism and its related healing arts are found throughout the country, with each ethnic group having its unique concepts of shamanism and healing.Philippine shamans are regarded as sacred by their ethnic groups. The introduction of Abrahamic religions (Islam and Christianity) suppressed many shamanitic traditions, with Spanish and American colonizers demeaning native beliefs during the colonial era. Shamans and their practices continue in some parts of the Philippines.[205] The art of constellation and cosmic reading and interpretation is a fundamental tradition among all Filipino ethnic groups, and the stars are used to interpret for communities to conduct farming, fishing, festivities, and other important activities. Notable constellations include Balatik and Moroporo.[206] Another cosmic reading is the utilization of earthly monuments, such as the Gueday stone calendar of Besao, which locals use to see the arrival ofkasilapet (the end of the current agricultural season and the beginning of the next one).[207]
Non-traditional arts include dance, music, theater, visual arts, literature, film and broadcast arts, architecture and allied arts, and design.[2] A distinguished artist is inducted as aNational Artist of the Philippines.
Dance in the Philippines includes choreography, direction, and performance. Philippine dance is influenced by the country's folk performing arts and its Hispanic traditions; a number of styles also have global influences. Igorot dances such as banga,[94] Moro dances such aspangalay andsingkil,[95]Lumad dances such as kuntaw, kadal taho and lawin-lawin, and Hispanic dances such asmaglalatik andsubli have been incorporated into contemporary Filipino dance.[96][97][98][99] Ballet has been popular since the early 20th century.[208]Pinoy hip hop music has influenced dances, a number of which have adopted global standards of hip hop and break dances.[209] Filipinos choreograph traditional and Westernized dances, with some companies focusing on Hispanic and traditional dance.[210][211]
Theater has a long history, and includes direction, performance, production design, light and sound design, and playwriting are the focal arts. It is Austronesian in character, evidenced by ritual, mimetic dances. Spanish culture has influenced Filipino theater and drama: the komedya, sinakulo, playlets, and sarswela.Puppetry, such ascarrillo, is another theater art.[221] Anglo-American theater has influencedbodabil. Modern, original plays by Filipinos have also influenced the country's theater.[222][223][224]
Promotion for the opera,Sangdugong Panaguinip (1902)
Folk painting has always been part of Filipino culture.[133][225] Petroglyphs and petrographs, the earliest known folk drawings and paintings, originated during the Neolithic.[226] Human figures, frogs, lizards, and other designs were depicted. They may have been primarily symbolic, associated with healing andsympathetic magic.[227]
Other Asian and Western cultures influenced the art of painting. From the 16th century to the end of the colonial period, religious paintings were used to spread Catholicism. Most were part of churches, such as ceilings and walls. Non-religious paintings were also known.[228] Notable works includeNuestra Senora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga (1692)[229] and paintings at Camarin de da Virgen (1720).[230] Wealthy, educated Filipinos introduced secular art during the 19th century. The number of watercolour paintings increased, and subjects began to include landscapes, Filipino people and fashion, and government officials. Portraits included self-portraits, Filipino jewelry, and native furniture. Landscape paintings depicted ordinary Filipinos participating in daily life. The paintings, often ornately signed, were made on canvas, wood, and a variety of metals.[228] Watercolours were painted in theTipos del País[231] orLetras y figuras style.[232]
Notable 19th-century oil paintings includeBasi Revolt paintings,Sacred Art of the Parish Church of Santiago Apostol (1852),Spoliarium (1884),La Bulaqueña (1895), andThe Parisian Life (1892).[230] A notable modern painting isThe Progress of Medicine in the Philippines (1953).[230] After World War II, paintings were influenced by the effects of war. Common themes included battle scenes, destruction, and the suffering of the Filipino people.[233] Nationalistic themes includedInternational Rice Research Institute (1962) and the Manila Mural (1968)[230] Twentieth- and 21st-century paintings have showcased native Filipino cultures as part of the spread of nationalism.[234] Notable paintings during the era includeChickens (1968)[235] andSarimanok series (late 20th century).[236] Some works have criticized lingering colonial viewpoints such as discrimination against darker-skinned people and the negative effects of colonialism; examples areFilipina: A racial identity crisis (1990s)[237][238] andThe Brown Man's Burden (2003).[239] A number of works have protested against state authoritarian rule, human-rights violations, and fascism.[240][241][242]
Printmaking began in the Philippines after the country's religious orders – the Dominicans, Franciscans and Jesuits – began printing prayer books and inexpensive religious images (such as the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ, or the saints) to spread Roman Catholicism. Maps were also printed, including the 1734Velarde map. Printmaking has diversified to include woodblock printing and other forms.[251] Photography began during the 1840s, and photos were used during the colonial era as media for news, tourism,anthropology and other documentation, and as colonial propaganda.[252] After independence, photography became popular for personal and commercial use.[253]
Religious print used for colonialism in the Philippines, 1896
The Kutbayin Movement is a fresh, original art form that reimagines Baybayin, the ancient Filipino script and Kutkut art, into a vibrant, modern medium of expression. Spearheaded by renowned Filipino-American artistFred DeAsis, this movement is more than just art—it’s a celebration of our heritage, a reconnection to our roots, and a bold step toward shaping the future ofFilipino culture.
Poetry, fiction, essays, and literary and art criticism are usually influenced by folk literature, which focuses on epics, ethnic mythology, and related stories and traditions. Calligraphy on a variety of media was used to create literary works; an example isMangyanambahan poetry.[254] Colonial literature focused first on Spanish-language works, and then English-language works. From 1593 to 1800, most literature in the Philippines consisted of Spanish-language religious works; examples areDoctrina Christiana (1593)[255] and a Tagalog rendition of thePasyon (1704).[256] Colonial literature was also written in native languages, primarily religious and governmental works promoting colonialism.[252] Non-colonial Filipino literature was written by local authors as well; oral traditions were incorporated into works by Filipino writers, such as the 17th-century manuscript of the ancientIlocano epicBiag ni Lam-ang.[257]Florante at Laura was published in 1869, combining fiction with Asian and European themes.[258][unreliable source?][259] In 1878[260] or 1894,[261]Ang Babai nga Huaran (the first modern play in any Philippine language) was written inHiligaynon. Spanish literature evolved into a nationalist stage from 1883 to 1903;Nínay, the first novel written by a Filipino, was published at this time. Literature critical of colonial rulers was published, such as the 1887Noli Me Tángere and the 1891El filibusterismo.[262] The first novel in Cebuano,Maming, was published in 1900.[263] The golden age of Spanish-language literature was from 1903 to 1966, and works in native languages and English were also popular.Banaag at Sikat, a 1906 novel, explores socialism, capitalism, and organized labor.[264] The first Filipino book written in English,The Child of Sorrow, was published in 1921. Early English literature is characterized by melodrama, figurative language, and an emphasis on local color.[265] A later theme was the search for Filipino identity, reconciling Spanish and American influence with the Philippines' Asian heritage.[266] Portions ofSa mga Kuko ng Liwanag were published in 1966 and 1967, and were combined in a 1986 novel.[267] During the martial-law era, works such asDekada '70 (1983)[268] andLuha ng Buwaya (1983) criticizing human-rights violations by those in power were published.[269][270] Twenty-first-century Filipino literature has explored history, global outlooks, equality, and nationalism. Major works includeSmaller and Smaller Circles (2002),[271]Ladlad (2007),[272]Ilustrado (2008),[273] andInsurrecto (2018).[274]
The film and broadcast arts focus on direction, writing, production design, cinematography, editing, animation, performance, and new media. Filipino cinema began in 1897, with the introduction ofmoving pictures inManila. Foreign filmmakers worked in the country until 1919, when filmmakerJosé Nepomuceno made the first Filipino film,Country Maiden.[275] Interest in film as art had begun by the 1930s, with theatre an important influence. Films made during the 1940s were realistic, due to the occupation years of World War II. More artistic, mature films were produced a decade later.[276][277] The 1960s were a decade ofcommercialism, fan movies,soft porn films, action films, andwestern spin-offs, leading to a golden age during the 1970s and 1980s under dictatorship. These films were overseen by the government, and a number of filmmakers were arrested. One notable film made at that time wasHimala, which addressed religious fanaticism. The period after martial law dealt with more serious topics, andindependent films were popular. The 1990s saw the emergence of Western-themed films and the continued popularity of films focusing on poverty; examples of the latter includeManila in the Claws of Light,The Flor Contemplacion Story,Oro, Plata, Mata, andSa Pusod ng Dagat.[277] Twenty-first-century Filipino films have examined human equality, poverty, self-love, and history.[278] Notable films includeThe Blossoming of Maximo Oliveros,[279]Caregiver,[280]Kinatay,[281]Thy Womb,[282]That Thing Called Tadhana,[283]The Woman Who Left,[284] and thefilm version of the novelSmaller and Smaller Circles.[285]
Allied arts of architecture include interior design, landscape architecture, and urban design. Interior design has been influenced by indigenous Filipino culture, Hispanic, American and Japanese styles, modern design, the avant-garde, tropical design, neo-vernacular, international style, and sustainable design. Interior spaces, expressive of culture, values and aspirations, have been extensively researched by Filipino scholars.[291] Common interior design styles have been Tropical, Filipino, Japanese, Mediterranean, Chinese, Moorish, Victorian and Baroque, and Avant Garde Industrial, Tech and Trendy, Metallic Glam, Rustic Luxe, Eclectic Elegance, Organic Opulence, Design Deconstructed, and Funk Art have become popular.[292] Landscape architecture initially mirrored a client's opulence, but presently emphasizes ecosystems and sustainability.[293] Urban planning is a key economic and cultural issue because of the country's large population and problems with infrastructure such as transportation. Urban planners have proposed raising some urban areas, especially in congested and flood-prone Metro Manila.[294][295]
Industrial design has been a factor in improving the Philippine economy. Many artistic creations are through research and development, which attracts customers. The packaging of food and other products and the aesthetics of gadgets are examples of industrial design with the aesthetics of mass-produced vehicles, kitchen equipment and utensils, and furniture.[296][297] Design Week has been held during the third week of March and October since 2011.[298]
Various jewelries
Earth-tone bags
Angel ornament made of capiz shell, silver, and metal
Candle holder inspired by the Philippine cherry blossom,balayong[299]
Fashion is one of the Philippines' oldest artistic crafts, and each ethnic group has an individual fashion sense. Indigenous fashion uses materials created with the traditional arts, such as weaving and the ornamental arts. Unlike industrial design (which is intended for objects and structures), fashion design is a bodily package. Filipino fashion is based on indigenous fashion and aesthetics introduced by other Asian peoples and the West through trade and colonization.Ilustrado fashion was prevalent during the last years of the Hispanic era, and many people wore Hispanized outfits; this slowly changed as American culture was imported.[300] Budget-friendly choices prevail in modern Filipino fashion, although expensive fashions are available for the wealthy.[301] Outfits using indigenous Filipino textiles, withoutcultural appropriation, have become popular in the country.[302]
Freedom of speech andfreedom of the press are enshrined in the1987 Constitution. According to the Constitution, under Article XVI, Section 10, the State is obligated to "provide the policy environment for … the balanced flow of information into, out of, and across the country, in accordance with a policy that respects the freedom of speech and of the press." The Constitution also guarantees freedom of the press under Article III, Section 4.[308] The Office of the President is responsible for managing the government's policy toward the press.
In 2011, theCultural Center of the Philippines took down the group exhibitKulo(Boil) following pressure from religious leaders and politicians to remove the multimediainstallation "Poleteismo" by Mideo Cruz. The installation prompted public debate on art and censorship[310] and its subsequent removal sparked protests from democracy and freedom of expression advocates.[311]
Usages of images of Philippine art in public spaces still subject to the artists' copyrights are subject to prior permission from the copyright owner, especially for commercial purposes. Thecopyright law of the Philippines does not prescribe afreedom of panorama exception that eliminates the need to seek permission from the artist for the use of an image of a copyrighted work of art as it appears in the photograph, such as a video of a scene with a building authored by a prominent Filipino architect, and the video is to be acquired byNetflix.[312]
^Kroeber, A. L. (1918).The History of Philippine Civilization as Reflected in Religious Nomenclature. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 19, Part 2. New York: Published by Order of the Trustees. pp. 35–37.hdl:2246/286.
^Perez, Rodrigo D. III; Encarnacion, Rosario S.; Dacanay, Julian E. (1989).Folk Architecture. Photographs by Joseph R. Fortin and John K. Chua. Quezon City: GCF Books.
^Roxas-Lim, Aurora.Traditional Boatbuilding and Philippine Maritime Culture(PDF). International Information and Networking Centre for Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region under the auspices of UNESCO (ICHCAP). pp. 219–222. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on July 10, 2015.
^abcdef"Traditional Boats in Batanes"(PDF).International Information and Networking Centre for Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region (ICHCAP). UNESCO. RetrievedOctober 29, 2019.
^abcdefNimmo, H. Arlo (1990). "The Boats of the Tawi-Tawi Bajau, Sulu Archipelago, Philippines".Asian Perspectives.29 (1):51–88.hdl:10125/16980.S2CID31792662.
^Argensola, Bartolomé Leonardo de (1711). "The Discovery and Conquest of the Molucco and Philippine Islands". In Stevens, John (ed.).A New Collection of Voyages and Travels, Into Several Parts of the World, None of Them Ever Before Printed in English. p. 61.
^Diamond, Isobel (March 26, 2015)."Palawan by Paraw Boat".Travel+Leisure. Archived fromthe original on December 5, 2018. RetrievedDecember 5, 2018.
^Warren, James Francis.The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State (2nd ed.). Singapore: NUS Press.
^Francisco, Juan R. (1963). "A Note on the Golden Image of Agusan".Philippine Studies.11 (3):390–400.doi:10.13185/2244-1638.2756.JSTOR42719871.It was found in 1917 on the left bank of the Wawa River near Esperanza, Agusan, eastern Mindanao, following a storm and flood
^Francisco, Juan R. (1963). "A Note on the Golden Image of Agusan".Philippine Studies.11 (3):390–400.doi:10.13185/2244-1638.2756.JSTOR42719871.The question of its identification is still undecided.
^ab"FMNH 109928".Field Museum. Archived fromthe original on June 1, 2019.Statue [figure] is about 178 mm in height (FMNH A109928).
^Arcilla, Jose S. (1971). "The Christianization of Davao Oriental: Excerpts from Jesuit Missionary Letters".Philippine Studies.19 (4):639–724.doi:10.13185/2244-1638.2104.JSTOR42632131.
^Reyes, Raquel A. G. (2019). "Paradise in Stone: Representations of New World Plants and Animals on Spanish Colonial Churches in the Philippines". In Reyes, Raquel A. G. (ed.).Art, Trade, and Cultural Mediation in Asia, 1600–1950. London: Palgrave Pivot. pp. 43–74.doi:10.1057/978-1-137-57237-0_3.ISBN978-1-137-57236-3.S2CID192379096.
^Felix Laureano,Recuerdos de Filipinas, Barcelona: 1795, A. Lóopez Robert, impresor, Calle Conde de Asalto (currently called "Carrer Nou de la Rambla"), 63, p. 106.
^Eugenio, Damiana L. (2001).Philippine Folk Literature: The Epics. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.ISBN9789715422949.
^Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander, eds. (1903).The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803. Vol. 2: 1521–1569. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. p. 126 – via Project Gutenberg.
^Steiger, G. Nye; Beyer, H. Otley; Benitez, Conrado (1929).A History of the Orient. Boston: Ginn and Company. pp. 143–144.
^Pangan, John Kingsley (2016).Church of the Far East. Makati City: St. Paul's Philippines. p. 9 – via Archive.org.
^Garvan, John M. (1931).The Manóbos of Mindanáo. Washington: United States Government Printing Office – via University of Michigan Library.
^Ouano-Savellon, Romola (2014). ""Aginid Bayok Sa Atong Tawarik": Archaic Cebuano and Historicity in a Folk Narrative".Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society.42 (3/4):189–220.JSTOR44512020.
^"Kampilan".Malay World Edged Weapons. RetrievedFebruary 5, 2009.
^Lawrence, Marc (2009)."Filipino Weapons from A to Z"(PDF).Filipino Martial Arts Digest. Stephen K. Dowd. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on August 24, 2014. RetrievedJuly 6, 2020.
^Nono, Grace (2013).Song of the Babaylan: Living Voices, Medicines, Spiritualities of Philippine Ritualist-Oralist-Healers. Quezon City: Institute of Spirituality in Asia.
^Ambrosio, Dante L. (2010).Balatik: Etnoastronomiya, Kalangitan at Kabihasnang Pilipino (in Filipino). Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
^Alejandro, Reynaldo G. (1983). "Contemporary Dance in the Philippines".Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.1 (1).JSTOR40860164.
^Miller, Terry E.; Williams, Sean, eds. (2008).The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music. London: Routledge. p. 441.ISBN978-0-415-96075-5.
^The Maranao Man. Marawi City: University Research Center, Mindanao State University. 1980.
^Cadar, Usopay Hamdag (1996). "The Maranao Kolintang Music and Its Journey in America".Asian Music.27 (2):131–148.doi:10.2307/834492.JSTOR834492.
^"More than a Love Song".Himig: The Filipino Music Collection of FHL. Filipinas Heritage Library. Archived fromthe original on October 28, 2017. RetrievedOctober 28, 2017.
^Panlilio, Erlinda Enriquez (2003). Laya, Jaime C. (ed.).Consuming Passions: Philippine Collectibles. Pasig City: Anvil. p. 70.ISBN971-27-1400-4.
^abcd[NCCA Guidelines](PDF). National Commission for Culture and the Arts. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on July 28, 2018. RetrievedFebruary 24, 2020.
^Blanco, John D. (2009).Frontier Constitutions: Christianity and Colonial Empire in the Nineteenth-Century Philippines. Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-25519-7.
^Mariñas Otero, Luis (1974).La literatura filipina en castellano (in Spanish). Madrid: Editora Nacional.ISBN84-276-1205-2.
^Cruz-Lucero, Rosario (2003). "The "Nation" in Vicente Sotto's Literary Imagination: A Study of Thirteen Cebuano Stories".Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society.31 (4):291–306.JSTOR29792537.
^Santos, Lope K. (1988).Banaag at Sikat (in Filipino). Bookmark.
^Hawley, John C., ed. (2001).Encyclopedia of Postcolonial Studies. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 177.ISBN0-313-31192-7.
^McFerson, Hazel M., ed. (2002).Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 99.ISBN0-313-30791-1.
^Tofighian, Nadi (2006).The Role of Jose Nepomuceno in the Philippine Society: What Language Did His Silent Films Speak? (Thesis).urn:nbn:se:su:diva-899.
^Oliveros, Edith; Baltazar-Florendo, Raquel (2013).Interior Design in the Philippines: A Retrospect of Spaces and Culture. Manila: University of Santo Tomas Publishing House.
^El-Haggar, Salah (2007).Sustainable Industrial Design and Waste Management: Cradle-to-Cradle for Sustainable Development. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.ISBN978-0-08-055014-5.
^Usui, Norio (2012). Taking the Right Road to Inclusive Growth: Industrial Upgrading and Diversification in the Philippines (Report). Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank.hdl:11540/908.ISBN978-92-9092-619-1.
^"Proclamation No. 277, s. 2011".Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. RetrievedFebruary 5, 2022 – via Official Gazette.
^Isla, Veronica L. (2013). "Investigating Second-Hand Fashion Trade and Consumption in the Philippines: Expanding Existing Discourses".Journal of Consumer Culture.13 (3):221–240.doi:10.1177/1469540513480167.S2CID145065600.
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![Candle holder inspired by the Philippine cherry blossom, balayong[299]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a3-votive_candle_holders_in_cherry_blossom_design_by_THE_BLUESMITH_COMPANY_Philippines_13.JPG)
