Art of Myanmar refers to visual art created inMyanmar (Burma). Ancient Burmese art was influenced by India and China, and was often religious in nature, ranging fromHindu sculptures in theThaton Kingdom toTheravada Buddhist images in theSri Ksetra Kingdom.[1] The Bagan period saw significant developments in many art forms from wall paintings and sculptures tostucco and wood carving.[1] After a dearth of surviving art between the 14th and 16th century,[2] artists created paintings and sculptures that reflect the Burmese culture.[3] Burmese artists have been subjected to government interference and censorship, hindering the development of art in Myanmar.[4] Burmese art reflects the central Buddhist elements including themudra,Jataka tales, thepagoda, andBodhisattva.[5] Throughout Burmese history, religious art or the royal court were the source virtually all of Myanmar's visual arts.[6]
Trade with India during thePyu period brought deep cultural contacts heavily influencing many aspects of visual culture in Myanmar. However, scholarship and archaeology on Pyu, Mon andDvaravati art in neighbouring Thailand were biased by colonial attitudes in the 20th century, placing a greater emphaisis on comparisons to well-documentedGupta art. The three cultures, traditionally divided by differences in artistic styles, actually share many similarities and evidence of cross-cultural influences within their art.[7]
Nonetheless, contact with India broughtTheravada Buddhism to the Pyu city states in the 6th century, most notably inSri Ksetra. Early Sri Ksetra religious art was influenced by Southeast India and later Southwest India. By the 9th century, there were notable influences from theNanzhao Kingdom.[8] Other Pyu city-states remained a mix ofAri Buddhist andMahayana Buddhist with greater influences from Nanzhao through the migration ofMranma people. InHanlin Buddha statues were crowned Buddhas differing from Sri Ksetra by lacking anurna on the forehead, indicating less Indian influence.[9]
TheThaton Kingdom and the Mon to the south of the Pyu also exhibited Indian influences in their art. The Mon from this time mainly usedalabaster, stone or bronze depicted with theBhūmisparśa mudra. Mon Buddha images are distinguished from Burmese or Pyu images by the length of the fingers in the mudra.[10] Some of the few pieces of Thaton art dating before theBagan Kingdom areHindu showingVishnu with a tripartite lotus showing theTrimurti (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) a configuration unique to Pyu art.[1]
There is significantly more extant art from theBagan Kingdom onwards. Most notable are the wall paintings and statues decorating the interior of temples inBagan. The murals of the Bagan period were painted on a dry surface, as opposed tofrescos utilizing wet cement. The wall painting were often captioned inPali,Old Mon orOld Burmese and typically depicted theJataka Tales. Many temples also featured ceiling paintings, which were usually patterns. Thelotus was a common motif in ceiling art for its symbolic connection with purity inBuddhist art.[11]
Sculpture was also very prominent in the period. Buddha images for the purpose of worship within temples. Buddha images of the period are distinct for their round face, shorturnas and strict expressions. Many surviving statues are made ofbronze, iron or sandstone.[12] Other scenes from Buddhist folklore like the birth of the Buddha were common subjects for statues and reliefs. Furthermore, many bronze sculptures depictedParvati, the consort of the Hindu godShiva, as she was regarded as an importantdeva in Bagan.[13]
Exteriors of Bagan temples also featured intricatestucco work andreliefs depicting various Buddhist scenes.[11] The art of wooden sculpture also developed in this period with a few surviving pieces being incorporated into the doors of Bagan temples.[13]
During this period, ten traditional arts, calledpan sè myo (ပန်းဆယ်မျိုး,lit. 'Ten Flowers'), were established within the culture. The ten arts are as follows:[14]Lacquerware is also a distinct craft originating from the late Bagan period with the earliest fragments of basketry in Bagan being dated to the 13th century.[15]
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After theMongol invasions of Burma and the subsequent decline of Bagan as a cultural center led to three centuries of warfare and internal division. Art produced in the rise of Burmese kingdoms were often plundered, destroyed or burnt especially when rival kingdoms came to surpass them in power. There is, therefore, significantly less art from the 14th to 16th centuries.[2]
Bayinnaung's conquest and subjugation in 1555–1562 ofManipur,Bhamo, Zinme (Chiang Mai), Linzin (Lan Xang), and up the Taping and Shweli rivers in the direction ofYunnan brought back large numbers of skilled craftsmen into Burma. It is thought that the finer sort of Burmeselacquerware, called Yun, was introduced during this period by imported artisans belonging to the Yun orLaosShan tribes of the Chiang Mai region.[16] Having reunited the various Burmese polities, Bayinnaung built theKanbawzathadi Palace incorporating gold plates into traditional Burmese architecture. Visitors recorded the palace as being magnificent and splendourous.[17] Art from this period began to see moreShan andMon influences. Buddha statues from both the Kingdom of Ava and the Taungoo period have larger heads and lotus-petal shaped halos.[18]
After the collapse of the empire and the restoration of theTaungoo Kingdom, the capital was moved back toAva with many referring to this period as the Ava period. This period is not to be confused with theKingdom of Ava two centuries prior. Buddha images from this period are distinct for their large forehead and oval-shaped faces.[19] Sculptors also began to work with marble and developed a style where the eyes looked down instead of outwards.[2] Paintings in this period, like those found in the Oke Kyaung Monastery in Bagan, continued the religious theme and subject matter of the Bagan period. However, Ava period paintings gave the settings local contexts like contemporary hair styles and depicted more ordinary activities like fishing. Paintings from this era also saw the use of blues and turquoise pigments creating more vivid images.[2] Sumptuary laws from this period restrict the use of ivory, gold and silver by rank, which played a part in a relative lack of art that survived from this period.[6]
TheKingdom of Arakan established in the 15th century brought artisans from theBengal Sultanate and had deep trade and cultural connections to South Asia. The cities ofMrauk U,Dhanyawadi andWaithali had stone sculptures and inscriptions dating between the 6th and 16th centuries. Visitors to the Arakanese court noted the textile splendours and the high respected positions of Weavers within Arakan.[20]
Buddha images from Arakan are more square and angled. When the images are crowned, they have a shorter crown wing.[21] One famous piece of Arakan art is theMahamuni Image. According to legend, it was carved in Dhanyawadi during a visit fromGautama Buddha.[22] Historically, the image has existed at least since the 11th century when KingAnawrahta unsuccessfully attempted to move the image toBagan. The image was later captured by theKonbaung dynasty and moved to theMahamuni Buddha Temple inAmarapura in 1784.[23]
Art historians do not have an agreed-upon definition of Shan art. It is believed to have originated between 1550 and 1772 CE, which was around the time that the two kingdoms ofLan Na andLan Xang were both under the support of the Burmese.[3]
Many pieces of Shan artwork depict aBuddha in a seated position, with his right hand pointed towards the Earth; this position is commonly known as the Maravijaya Posture. In Buddhism, the Maravijaya pose represents Buddha calling the Earth Goddess to witness Gautama Shakyamuni's victory over Mara. Sculptures made in this art style were usually made of bronze and later would be sculpted with wood or in lacquer. Traditional Shan art typically had a Buddha with the characteristic monk's robes, or adorned with a crown and decorated with various other mediums like putty and glass.[3]
Shan sculptures are distinctive and easily recognizable when looking through the history of Burmese Buddhist art. Shan sculptures are often identified with oval shaped faces, soft smiles, and closed relaxed eyes.[3]
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In 1752,Alaungpaya founded theKonbaung dynasty in response to the collapse of the Taungoo dynasty and the rise of theRestored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. After uniting most of modern-day Myanmar, the Konbaung kings focused on reforms and modernisation with limited success.[24] During the Konbaung period, the techniques ofEuropean painting became more established amongst the court and the techniques oflinear perspective,chiaroscuro andsfumato entered Burmese painting.[25] Wall painting within temples and monasteries developed these western techniques on traditional Burmese styles, particularly utilizing cast shadows and distant haziness.[26]
This period also saw a proliferation of stupas and temples with developments in stucco techniques. In particular the wooden monasteries of this period remain one of the most uniquely Burmese styles that have survived. The monasteries were decorated with intricate wood carvings of theJataka Tales.[26] The interiors of the royal court palaces and monasteries were well documented by foreign emissaries of the period who noted intricate wood carvings and the use of visual details and sumptuary laws to indicate the rank of the owner in Burmese material culture- ranging from ornamentation in dresses to "horse furniture" like drinking cups.[6]
The Konbaung period also developedparabaik -folding-book manuscripts that had long been the traditional method of record keeping in Myanmar. White parabaik (Burmese:ပုရပိုက်ဖြူ) was used for painting and drawings, often depicting royal or court activities.[27]
During theKonbaung conquest of Ayutthaya, the Burmese court brought back artisans and adopted the Siamese style of glass mosiacs as a form of cultural domination. The style was never fully regained by Siam and continues to be associated with Konbaung-era Burmese art.[6]
Statues from this period, particularly Buddha images, are typically divided into the Amarapura period (1789–1853) and the Mandalay period (1853–1948). KingBagyidaw moved the capital of the Konbaung to Amarapura in 1783 and artisans developed a unique style using wood gild with gold leaf and red lacquer. Images from this period may have been influenced by the capture of theMahamuni Image with Burmese images featuring rounder faces.[28] In 1853, after the loss of theFirst Anglo-Burmese War,Mindon Min moved the capital to nearby Mandalay with a planned city following the BuddhistMandala. Buddha images from the last days of the Burmese monarchy followed a style with a broad band across the forehead and tight curly hair with a prominentushnisha. Images also returned to various materials includingalabaster andbronze. This style was retained through the period of British colonialism.[29]
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The early 19th century also saw many prints made by British officers in the country, making sketches of the countryside during their time in theFirst Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826)[26]
Burmese European-style painting reached its heights in the early twentieth century from the opening of many art schools and increased travel by Burmese artists to Europe.[30] 20th century painters likeSaya Chone, Saya Myo and Saya Saw, paintedwatercolours depicting aristocratic life.[25]Oil painting also became very popular towards the end ofBritish rule in Burma. The founding father of Myanmar's modern art movement,Ba Nyan, was called the greatest name in Burmese modern painting for his oil paintings.[31]
Mandalay became a site of artistic importance, giving rise to the Mandalay School. Artists of the Mandalay School, likeBa Kyi, created a distinctive Burmese neo-traditional style. Artists likeBagyi Aung Soe andKin Maung painted usingimpressionism,cubism and experimental techniques in combination with Burmese traditional art.[30]
The 1950s saw the establishment of fine arts schools and active support for the arts. Prominent artists likeU Ba Nyan and UBa Zaw exhibited overseas.[6] From 1962 to 1988, during theCold War era, postcolonial Myanmar was isolated from the rest of the world as a way to maintain independence.[4] Despite the authoritarian government, propaganda art never reached the levels of similar countries. Instead, the focus of exhibitions continued to be either the ten traditional crafts or traditional landscapes and watercolours as prescribed by Western model of art education.[6]
In 1989, Myanmar began to open international trade and state control was relaxed. This allowed Myanmar's artists more opportunities to engage with international artists.[4] Western art became an outlet to criticise the govnerment, leading to a shift towards new mediums and style. However, many artists were arrested with their works seized when they were deemed subversive.[6]
The government of Myanmar banned or confiscated artwork on prohibited subjects censored art exhibitions. The prohibited subjects included political criticism, nudity and even the use of certain colours. In 1970, censors defaced unapproved artworks with stamps reading "not allowed to show" on the front and back.[32] Approved paintings depicted the political leaderNe Win (1910 – 2002),socialism and its agrarian utopia, the purity of Burmese culture and Buddhism.[32] Some artists became defiant of the censorship.
Thecontemporary art ofMyanmar reflects the fact that the country existed in isolation from 1962 to 2011, and is a country with deep rootedBuddhist beliefs. The art often relates to Buddhism and the difficult socio-political situation. In this age ofglobalization, Burmese contemporary art has developed rather on its own terms.
In 1997, access to the internet allowed a contemporary art community in Myanmar to grow. However, government censorship, conflict, economic hardship and isolation have affected Myanmar artists and their art. For instance, the government restricted art to religious depictions and expressions of the natural beauty of the nation.[4]
One of the first to study western art wasBa Nyan, one of the pioneers of Western-style painting in the country along withNgwe Gaing and others.
Lun Gywe (born 1930)[33] is a prominent master of Burmese painting, and the mentor of many younger generations of artists. Lun Gywe is a master with colours, often in animpressionistic manner, and the beauty of women features prominently in his work. His works appear in theNational Museum of Myanmar and theNational Art Gallery of Malaysia.
San Hlaing was a Burmese artist born on 24 December 1923 inPyapon,Ayeyarwady Region,Myanmar. He was a versatile artist who not only illustrated the traditional, but also commercial arts.[34] He studied under artistsNgwe Gaing, Hla Maung Gyi, Sayar Mhat and artist U Thein Nyunt.
In the special issues of Taing Lone Kyaw and Myanma Alin Newspaer, all the covers were of U Sann Hlaing's paintings. Shumawa, Ngwe Taryi, Pe Phu Hiwar, Mahaythi, Yadanarmon, Myatsumon magazines, Loke Thar, Pyi Thu Kye, Khit Myanmar, Myitmaka, Byar Deik Pan, Taya Yeik Myaing Journals, U Sann Hlaing[35] works were seen monthly and consecutively. From the No (1) issue of Sit Pyan, he drew illustrations for a long period. The 10 Jataka Tales, 550 Nipats were illustrated by U Sann Hlaing, which were fall with Myanmar styles and cultures.
Aung Kyaw Htet (born 1965) is a devoutBuddhist who grew up in a small village, two factors which have a strong influence on his art. His paintings of religious life in Burma showmonks andnuns in a realistic manner, though non-essential objects are omitted from the paintings to focus on the religious aspects. Aung Kyaw Htet paints the faces of monks and nuns in great detail to show their humanity. His works are represented in theNational Museum of Myanmar and theNational Art Gallery of Malaysia.
Other artists whose works have been included in the permanent collection of theNational Art Gallery of Malaysia includeMPP Yei Myint,Myint Swe,Min Wai Aung andAung Myint.
The younger generation of upcoming international contemporary artists includeNyein Chan Su andThe Maw Naing and the Gangaw Village Artist Group.
Other contemporary artists includePo Po (born 1957), a self-taught artist who lives and works inYangon, and works with various media especially with installation works. He has staged solo exhibitions since 1987, such as "Untitled" and "Solid Concept". He participated in the Kwangju Biennale 2000, the Flying Circus Project 2004 and Yokohama Triennale 2005.
Wah Nu was born in Yangon in 1977, and launched her artistic career after graduating from theUniversity of Culture, Yangon in 1998, where she majored in music. Since then she has mainly been adopting painting and video as media. In 2004, she held her first solo exhibition, "Cloud Department" in Yangon, followed in 2005 by "Self-Identity" at the Art-U Room gallery,[36] inTokyo,Japan. She showed in group exhibitions includingBangladesh Biennale 2004,Fukuoka Triennale 2005[37] andAnother Seven Artists in Yangon 2008. Recently, she participated in the 6th Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art in Brisbane with her husband, Tun Win Aung, who works in multimedia installations and performance arts.
Most of the young artists who were born in the 1980s have greater opportunities to practise art inside and outside the country.Performance art is a popular genre among young Burmese artists, including Aung Ko, Moe Satt, Mrat Lunn Htwann and Nyan Lin Htet. Nyan Lin Htet started making performance art in the early 2000s and later joined the contemporary theatre group Annees Folles for intensive theatre training with Japanese theatre director Arata Kitamura in Japan. Since 2005, Lin Htet has been involved in the international performance art and theatre scenes. After founding the Yangon-based experimental theatre group Theatre of the Disturbed in 2005, Lin Htet directed theatrical adaptations of dramatic and literary works bySamuel Beckett,Eugène Ionesco andFranz Kafka as well as dramatic works by local playwrights including himself. In 2007, he was awarded the two-year artist-in-residency programme at theCité internationale des arts in Paris, with the support of Alliance Française de Rangoun and the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
