| History of art |
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Theart of Mesopotamia has survived in the record from earlyhunter-gatherer societies (8th millennium BC) on to theBronze Age cultures of theSumerian,Akkadian,Babylonian andAssyrian empires. These empires were later replaced in theIron Age by theNeo-Assyrian andNeo-Babylonian empires. Widely considered to be thecradle of civilization,Mesopotamia brought significant cultural developments, including the oldest examples of writing.
The art of Mesopotamia rivalledthat of Ancient Egypt as the most grand, sophisticated and elaborate in westernEurasia from the 4th millennium BC until thePersianAchaemenid Empire conquered the region in the 6th century BC. The main emphasis was on various, very durable, forms of sculpture in stone and clay; little painting has survived, but what has suggests that, with some exceptions,[1] painting was mainly used for geometrical and plant-based decorative schemes, though most sculptures were also painted.Cylinder seals have survived in large numbers, many with complex and detailed scenes despite their small size.
Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently not.[2] Favourite subjects include deities, alone or with worshippers, and animals in several types of scenes: repeated in rows, single, fighting each other or a human,confronted animals by themselves or flanking a human or god in theMaster of Animals motif, or aTree of Life.[3]
Stonestelae,votive offerings, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them;[4] the fragmentaryStele of the Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type,[5] and the AssyrianBlack Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and well preserved late one.[6]
The highland regions of Mesopotamia were occupied since theNeanderthal times, for example at the site ofShanidar Cave (65,000–35,000 years ago), but with no known artistic creation.[7][8] The first artistic productions of Mesopotamia appear in the area ofUpper Mesopotamia only, at the end of theNeolithic during thePre-Pottery Neolithic A period, with simple representations of humans and animals as well asmegaliths (9,500–8,000 BC). This succeeds an earlier period of development in theLevant, as in theHayonim Cave, were carvings of animals such as horses are known from the earliest dates of theUpper Paleolithic, with dates ranging from 40,000 to 18,500 BP.[9][10][11][12]
In Prehistoric and Ancient Mesopotamia, the climate was cooler than inEgypt or theIndus Valley, meaning that the valleys of theTigris andEuphrates rivers were very different from the deserts of today; in the highlands there were bands of forest interspersed withsteppes andsavannas rich in flora and abounding with goats, boars, deers, and fox. After theinvention of agriculture, farmers worked in the valley, but the community lived in the more easily fortifiable hills. Unlike inChina and theIndus Valley civilization, the villages had two economic orientations, downhill to the fields of grain and uphill into the mountains ofAnatolia with their rich mines of gold and copper. Mesopotamian cultures were thus continually in a state of flux, which had its own advantages and difficulties.
Following theEpipalaeolithic period in the Near East, severalPre-Pottery Neolithic A sites are known from the areas ofUpper Mesopotamia and the northern mountainous fringes of Mesopotamia, marked by the appearance around 9000 BC on the banks of the UpperEuphrates of the world's oldest knownmegaliths atGöbekli Tepe,[16] and the first known use of agriculture around the same time atTell Abu Hureyra, a site from the precedingNatufian culture.[17]
Numerous realistic reliefs and a few sculptures of animals, as well as fragments of reliefs of humans or deities, are known from Göbekli Tepe and dated to circa 9000 BC. TheUrfa Man found in another site nearby is dated to the period of thePre-Pottery Neolithic circa 9000 BC, and is considered as "the oldest naturalistic life-sized sculpture of a human".[13][14][15] Slightly later, early human statuettes in stone and fired clay have been found in other Upper Mesopotamia sites such asMureybet, dated to 8500–8000 BC.[18][19]
Around 8000 BC, during the following period ofPre-Pottery Neolithic B, still before the invention of pottery, several early settlements became experts in crafting beautiful and highly sophisticated containers from stone, using materials such asalabaster orgranite, and employing sand to shape and polish. Artisans used the veins in the material to maximum visual effect. Such object have been found in abundance on the upperEuphrates river, in what is today eastern Syria, especially at the site ofBouqras.[20]
In northeastern Mesopotamia, theJarmo culture (7500 BC), centered on the site ofJarmo (Qal'at Jarmo) is a prehistoricarcheological site located in modernIraq on the foothills of theZagros Mountains. Excavations revealed that Jarmo was anagricultural community, dating back to 7500 BC, based on irrigation through natural rainfall. It preceded the human expansion towards the alluvial plains of central Mesopotamia. It was broadly contemporary with such other importantNeolithic sites such asJericho in the southernLevant,Çatalhöyük inAnatolia orTell Sabi Abyad in northernSyria. Some fragments of stone vessels and alabaster jars have also been found in Jarmo, dating to circa 7500 BC, before the c.7000 BC invention of pottery.[21][22][23]
![Calcite tripod vase, mid-Euphrates, probably from Tell Buqras, 6000 BC, Louvre Museum AO 31551.[24]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCalcite_tripod_vase%2c_mid-Euphrates_probably_from_Tell_Buqras%2c_6000_BCE%2c_Louvre_Museum_AO_31551.jpg)
The northern Mesopotamian sites ofTell Hassuna andJarmo are some of the oldest sites in the Near-East wherepottery has been found, appearing in the most recent levels of excavation, which dates it to the 7th millennium BC.[21] This pottery is handmade, of simple design and with thick sides, and treated with a vegetable solvent.[25] There are clay figures, zoomorphic or anthropomorphic, including figures of pregnant women which are taken to be fertility goddesses, similar to theMother Goddess of later Neolithic cultures in the same region.
Pottery was decorated with abstract geometric patterns and ornaments, especially in theHalaf culture, also known for its clay fertility figurines, painted with lines. Clay was all around and the main material; often modelled figures were painted with black decoration. Carefully crafted and dyed pots, especially jugs and bowls, were traded. As dyes,iron oxide containing clays were diluted in different degrees or various minerals were mixed to produce different colours.
The Halaf culture saw the earliest known appearance ofstamp seals.[26] They featured essentially geometric patterns.[26]
Female fertility figurines in painted clay, possibly goddesses, also appear in this period, circa 6000–5100 BC.[27]
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TheHassuna culture is aNeolithicarchaeological culture in northernMesopotamia dating to the early sixth millennium BC. It is named after thetype site ofTell Hassuna inIraq. Other sites where Hassuna material has been found includeTell Shemshara. The decoration of pottery essentially consists in geometrical shapes, and a fewibex designs.
TheSamarra culture is aChalcolithicarchaeological culture in northernMesopotamia that is roughly dated to 5500–4800 BCE. It partially overlaps with theHassuna and earlyUbaid.
TheUbaid period (c. 6500–3800 BC)[28] is aprehistoric period ofMesopotamia. The name derives fromTell al-'Ubaid in Southern Mesopotamia, where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially byHenry Hall and later byLeonard Woolley.[29]
In South Mesopotamia the period is the earliest known period on thealluvial plain although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under thealluvium.[30] In the south it has a very long duration between about 6500 and 3800 BC when it is replaced by theUruk period.[31]
In North Mesopotamia, Ubaid culture expanded during the period between about 5300 and 4300 BC.[31] It is preceded by theHalaf period and theHalaf-Ubaid Transitional period and succeeded by the Late Chalcolithic period. The new period is named Northern Ubaid to distinguish it from the proper Ubaid in southern Mesopotamia.[32]
With Ubaid 3 (circa 4500 BC) numerous examples of Ubaid pottery have been found along the Persian Gulf, as far asDilmun, whereIndus Valley civilization pottery has also been found.[33]
Stamps seals start to depict animals in stylistic fashion, and also bear the first known depiction of theMaster of Animals at the end of the period, circa 4000 BC.[34][26][35]
![Fragment of pottery with a painting of an Ibex; 4700–4200 BC; painted ceramic; from Girsu; Louvre[36]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aUbaid_IV_pottery_4700-4200_BC_Tello%2c_ancient_Girsu%2c_Louvre_Museum.jpg)
![Lizard-headed nude woman nursing a child, Ur, Ubaid 4 period, 4500-4000 BCE, Iraq Museum. "The elongated head, similar to the figures found at Eridu, could represent an elaborate headdress or possibly cranial binding".[37]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLizard-headed_nude_woman_nursing_a_child%2c_from_Ur%2c_Iraq%2c_c._4000_BCE._Iraq_Museum_(retouched).jpg)
![Terracotta stamp seal with Master of Animals motif, Tello, ancient Girsu, End of Ubaid period, Louvre Museum AO14165. circa 4000 BC.[34]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aStamp_seal_with_Master_of_Animals_motif%2c_Tello%2c_ancient_Girsu%2c_End_of_Ubaid_period%2c_Louvre_Museum_AO14165_(detail).jpg)
The rise of thenon-Semitic-speakingSumerian culture spans a period of about two millennia, and saw the development of sophisticated artistic traditions, as well as theinvention of writing, first through pictographic signs, and then throughcuneiforms.
The Protoliterate orUruk period, named after the city ofUruk in southern Mesopotamia, (ca. 4000 to 3100 BC) existed from theprotohistoricChalcolithic toEarly Bronze Age period, following theUbaid period and succeeded by theJemdet Nasr period generally dated to 3100–2900 BC.[38] It saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia, and the beginnings ofSumerian civilization,[39] and also the first "great creative age" of Mesopotamian art.[40] Slightly earlier, the northern city ofTell Brak, today inSyria, also saw urbanization, and the development of a temple with regional significance. This is called the Eye Temple after the many "eye idols", in factvotive offerings, found there, a type distinctive to this site. The stoneTell Brak Head, 7 inches high, shows a simplified face; similar heads are ingypsum. These were evidently fitted to bodies that have not survived, probably of wood.[41] Like temples further south, the Eye Temple was decorated with cone mosaics made up of clay cylinders some four inches long, differently coloured to create simple patterns.[42]
Significant works from the southern cities in Sumer proper are theWarka Vase andUruk Trough, with complex multi-figured scenes of humans and animals, and theMask of Warka. This is a more realistic head than the Tell Brak examples, like them made to top a wooden body; what survives of this is only the basic framework, to which coloured inlays, gold leaf hair, paint and jewellery were added.[43] It could depict a temple goddess. Shells may have served as the whites of the eyes, and the lapis lazuli, a beautiful, blue semi-precious gemstone, may have formed the pupils.[44] TheGuennol Lioness is an exceptionally powerful small figurine of a lion-headed monster,[45] perhaps from the start of the next period.
There are a number of stone oralabaster vessels carved in deeprelief, and stonefriezes of animals, both designed for temples, where the vessels held offerings. Cylinder seals are already complex and very finely executed and, as later, seem to have been an influence on larger works. Animals shown are often representations of the gods, another continuing feature of Mesopotamian art.[46] The end of the period, despite being a time of considerable economic expansion, saw a decline in the quality of art, perhaps as demand outstripped the supply of artists.[47]
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![Sumerian dignitary, Uruk, circa 3300-3000 BCE. National Museum of Iraq.[48][49]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPriest-king_from_Uruk%2c_Mesopotamia%2c_Iraq%2c_c._3000_BCE._The_Iraq_Museum.jpg)
![The original Warka Vase, in the National Museum of Iraq. It is one of the earliest surviving works of narrative relief sculpture, dated to c. 3200–3000 BC.[50]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWarka_vase_(background_retouched).jpg)
![Cylinder seal impression from Uruk, showing a "king-priest" in brimmed hat and long coat feeding the herd of goddess Inanna, symbolized by two rams, framed by reed bundles as on the Uruk Vase. Late Uruk period, 3300–3000 BC.[51][52] A similar king-priest also appears standing on a ship.[53]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aRolzegel.JPG)
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Egypt–Mesopotamia relations seem to have developed from the 4th millennium BCE, starting in theUruk period forMesopotamia and theGerzean culture of pre-literatePrehistoric Egypt (circa 3500–3200 BC).[57][58] Influences can be seen in thePre-DynasticArt of Ancient Egypt, in imported products, and also in the possible transfer of writing from Mesopotamia to Egypt,[58] and generated "deep-seated" parallels in the early stages of both cultures.[59]
Distinctly Mesopotamian objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating exchanges and contacts. The designs that were emulated by Egyptian artists are numerous: the Uruk "priest-king" with his tunique and brimmed hat in the posture of theMaster of animals, theserpopards or sepo-felines, winged griffins, snakes around rosettes, boats with high prows, all characteristic of Mesopotamian art of theLate Uruk (Uruk IV, c. 3350–3200 BC) period.[60][61] The same "Priest-King" in visible in several Mesopotamian works of art of the end of the Uruk period, such as theBlau Monuments, cylinder seals and statues.[62]
TheJemdet Nasr Period covers the period from 3100 to 2900 BC. It is named after thetype siteTell Jemdet Nasr, where the assemblage typical for this period was first recognized. Its geographical distribution is limited to south-central Iraq. The culture of the proto-historical Jemdet Nasr period is a local development out of the precedingUruk period and continues into theEarly Dynastic I period. The period is characterized by splendidly paintedmonochrome andpolychrome pottery, as well as the appearance of large proto-cuneiform tablets, clearly going beyond the initial pictographic writing.
The earliest type of dress attested in earlySumerian art is not thekaunakes, but rather a sort ofkilt or "net dress" which is quite closely fitting the lower body, while the upper body remains bare.[63] This early type of net dress looks much more similar to standard textile then the laterkaunakes, which looks more like sheepskin with ample bell-shaped volume around the waist and the legs.[63][64]
TheEarly Dynastic Period is generally dated to 2900–2350 BC. While continuing many earlier trends, its art is marked by an emphasis on figures of worshippers and priests making offerings, and social scenes of worship, war and court life. Copper becomes a significant medium for sculpture, probably despite most works having later being recycled for their metal.[66] Few if any copper sculptures are as large as theTell al-'Ubaid Lintel, which is 2.59 metres wide and 1.07 metres high.[67]
Many masterpieces have also been found at theRoyal Cemetery at Ur (c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of aRam in a Thicket, theCopper Bull and a bull's head on one of theLyres of Ur.[68] The so-calledStandard of Ur, actually an inlaid box or set of panels of uncertain function, is finely inlaid with partly figurative designs.[69]
Major Discoveries of theEarly Dynastic Period were found through the excavations of Ur that took place between 1922 and 1934. These excavations were led byC. Leonard Woolley in a collaboration between the University of Pennsylvania Museum and the British Museum. Although these excavations ranged acrossUr, theRoyal Cemetery led to many art discoveries. Sir Woolley notes that a major technical skill of the Sumerians was their development and knowledge of metal work.[70] This element is carried throughout Woolley's discoveries ranging from a cast dagger to one of his most popular discoveries; The twin set of “Rams in a Thicket” residing at The University of Pennsylvania Museum and The British Museum.[71] Through Sir Woolley's discoveries we were able to understand more aspects of Ur than ever before, gaining more knowledge of daily life, architecture, art, government, and religion. This newly found understanding of Mesopotamia culture is found through Sir Woolley’s documentation of his excavations, writing ten volumes ofUr Excavations in 1927 and many more books on his discoveries.[72] These books were physical documentation serving as first hand sources of information on Ur and Mesopotamia, but also allowed for the distribution of his discoveries and widespread of Mesopotamian history.[73]
A group of 12 temple statues known as theTell Asmar Hoard, now split up, show gods, priests and donor worshippers at different sizes, but all in the same highly simplified style. All have greatly enlarged inlaid eyes, but the tallest figure, the maincult image depicting the local god, has enormous eyes that give it a "fierce power".[74] Later in the period this geometric style was replaced by a strongly contrasting one giving "a detailed rendering of the physical peculiarities of the subject"; "Instead of sharply contrasting, clearly articulated masses, we see fluid transitions and infinitely modulated surfaces".[75]
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![King Ur-Nanshe, seated, wearing flounced skirt. Limestone, Early Dynastic III (2550–2500 BC). Found in Telloh (ancient city of Girsu). Louvre Museum.[76][77][78]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aUr-Nanshe.jpg)
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![Statue of Iku-Shamagan king of Mari, c.2500 BC.[79][80] National Museum of Damascus](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_(front_and_side).jpg)
TheAkkadian Empire was the first to control not only all Mesopotamia, but other territories in theLevant, from about 2271 to 2154 BC. The Akkadians were not Sumerian, and spoke aSemitic language. In art there was a great emphasis on the kings of the dynasty, alongside much that continued earlier Sumerian art. In large works and small ones such as seals, the degree of realism was considerably increased,[81] but the seals show a "grim world of cruel conflict, of danger and uncertainty, a world in which man is subjected without appeal to the incomprehensible acts of distant and fearful divinities who he must serve but cannot love. This sombre mood ... remained characteristic of Mesopotamian art..."[82]
King Naram-Sin's famousVictory Stele depicts him as a god-king (symbolized by his horned helmet) climbing a mountain above his soldiers, and his enemies, the defeatedLullubi. Although the stele was broken off at the top when it was stolen and carried off by theElamite forces ofShutruk-Nakhunte, it still strikingly reveals the pride, glory, and divinity of Naram-Sin. The stele seems to break from tradition by using successive diagonal tiers to communicate the story to viewers, however, the more traditional horizontal frames are visible on smaller broken pieces. It is 6 feet 7 inches (2.01 m) tall, and made from pinksandstone.[83][84] From the same reign, the bare legs and lower torso of the copperBassetki Statue show an unprecedented level of realism, as does the imposingbronze head of a bearded ruler (Louvre).[82]
The Louvre head is a life-size, bronze bust found inNineveh. The intricate curling and patterning of the beard and the complex hairstyle suggests royalty, power, and wealth from an ideal male in society. Aside from its aesthetic traits, this piece is spectacular because it is the earliest hollow-cast sculpture item known to use thelost-wax casting process.[85] There is deliberate damage on the left side of the face and eye, indicating that the bust was intentionally slashed at a later period to demonstrate politicaliconoclasm.[86]
![Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon of Akkad or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin.[87]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSargon_of_Akkad_(frontal).jpg)
![Naked captives, on the Nasiriyah stele of Naram-Sin.[88]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aNasiriyah_Victory_Stele_of_Naram-Sin%2c_from_Mesopotamia%2c_Iraq%2c_c._2300_BCE._Iraq_Museum.jpg)
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, a local dynasty emerged inLagash.Gudea, ruler ofLagash (reign ca. 2144 to 2124 BC), was a great patron of new temples early in the period, and an unprecedented 26statues of Gudea, mostly rather small, have survived from temples, beautifully executed, mostly in "costly and very harddiorite" stone. These exude a confident serenity.[89]
The northernRoyal Palace of Mari produced a number of important objects from before about 1800 BC, including theStatue of Iddi-Ilum,[90] and the most extensive remains ofMesopotamian palace frescos.[1]
TheNeo-Sumerian art of theThird Dynasty of Ur reached new heights, especially in terms of realism and fine craftmanship.
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The political history of this period of nearly 1000 years is complicated, marked by the rise ofSemitic-speaking polities originating in northwestern Mesopotamia. The period includes theAmoritesIsin-Larsa Period and theFirst Babylonian Dynasty or Old Babylonian period (c.1830–1531 BC), an interlude under the rule of theKassites (c. 1531–1155 BC) followed by invasions of theElamite, while theMiddle Assyrian Empire (1392–934 BC) developed in the northern part of Mesopotamia. The period ended with the decisive advent of theNeo-Assyrian Empire underAdad-nirari II, whose reign began in 911 BC.
The Isin-Larsa period is a period of turmoil, marked by the rise of the influence of theAmorites for the northwest of Mesopotamia. Life was often unstable, and non-Sumerian invasions a recurring theme.
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From the 18th century BC,Hammurabi (1792 BC to 1750 BC), the Amorite ruler ofBabylon, turned Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered Mesopotamia and beyond. He is famous for hislaw code and conquests, but he is also famous due to the large amount of records that exist from the period of his reign. During the period Babylon became a great city, which was often the seat of the dominant power. The period was not one of great artistic development, these invaders failing to bring new artistic impetus,[91] and much religious art was rather self-consciously conservative, perhaps in a deliberate assertion of Sumerian values.[92] The quality of execution is often lower than in preceding and later periods.[93] Some "popular" works of art displayed realism and mouvement, such as thestatuette of a walking four-headed god fromIshchali, attributed to the period between 2000 and 1600 BC.[94]
TheBurney Relief is an unusual, elaborate, and relatively large (20×15 inches)terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or 19th century BC, and may also be moulded. Similar pieces, small statues or reliefs of deities, were made for altars in homes or small wayside shrines, and small moulded terracotta ones were probably available as souvenirs from temples.[95]
TheInvestiture of Zimri-Lim, now in theLouvre, is a large palacefresco that is the outstanding survival of Mesopotamian wall-painting, although comparable schemes were probably common in palaces.
After the death of Hammurabi, the first Babylonian dynasty lasted for another century and a half, but his empire quickly unravelled, and Babylon once more became a small state. The Amorite dynasty ended in 1595 BC, when Babylonia fell to theHittite kingMursilis, after which theKassites took control.
![Hammurabi (standing), depicted as receiving his royal insignia from Shamash (or possibly Marduk). Hammurabi holds his hands over his mouth as a sign of prayer[96] (relief on the upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's code of laws).](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aF0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg)
The original homeland of the Kassites is not well-known, but appears to have been located in theZagros Mountains, in what is now theLorestan Province ofIran. This was generally not a period of the highest quality for cylinder seal images; at different times the inscription took prominence over the image, and the variety of scenes shown reduced, with the "presentation scene" of a king before a god, or an official before a seated king, becoming the norm at times.[97] Especially from theKassite period several stonekudurru stelae survive, mostly taken up with inscriptions recording grants of land, boundary lines, and other official records, but often with figures and emblems of the gods or the king as well; aland grant by Meli-Shipak II is an example.[98]
AnAssyrian artistic style distinct from that of Babylonian art, which was the dominant contemporary art in Mesopotamia, began to emerge c. 1500 BC, well before their empire includedSumer, and lasted until the fall ofNineveh in 612 BC.
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The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by theNeo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before, and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. From around 879 BC the Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone orgypsumalabaster, originally painted, for palaces. The precisely delineated reliefs concern royal affairs, chiefly hunting and war making. Predominance is given to animal forms, particularly horses and lions, which are magnificently represented in great detail.
Human figures are comparatively rigid and static but are also minutely detailed, as in triumphal scenes of sieges, battles, and individual combat. Among the best known Assyrian reliefs are the famousLion Hunt of Ashurbanipal scenes in alabaster, and theLachish reliefs showing a war campaign inPalestine, both of which are of the 7th century BC, from Nineveh and now in theBritish Museum.[99] Reliefs were also carvedinto rock faces, as atShikaft-e Gulgul, a style which the Persians continued.
The Assyrians produced relatively little sculpture in the round, with the partial exception of colossal human-headedlamassu guardian figures, with the bodies of lions or bulls, which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effectively in the round (and often also five legs, so that both views seem complete). These marked fortified royal gateways, an architectural form common throughout Asia Minor. Asingle statue of a nude female is known. The Assyrian form of thewinged genie, winged spirits with bearded human heads seen in reliefs, influenced Ancient Greek art, which in its "orientalizing period" added various winged mythological beasts including theChimera,griffin and winged horses (Pegasus) and men (Talos).[100] Many carry thebucket and cone.
Even before dominating the region the Assyrians had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.[99] AtNimrud the carvedNimrud ivories and bronze bowls were found that are decorated in the Assyrian style but were produced in several parts of the Near East including many byPhoenician and Aramaean artisans.
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The famousIshtar Gate, part of which is now reconstructed in thePergamon Museum inBerlin, was the main entrance intoBabylon, built in about 575 BC byNebuchadnezzar II, the king of theNeo-Babylonian Empire, who exiled the Jews; the empire lasted from 626 BC to 539 BC. The walls surrounding the entrance way are decorated with rows of large relief animals in glazed brick, which has therefore retained its colours. Lions, dragons and bulls are represented. The gate was part of a much larger scheme for a processional way into the city, from which there are sections in many other museums.[101] Large wooden gates throughout the period were strengthened and decorated with large horizontal metal bands, often decorated with reliefs, several of which have survived, such as the variousBalawat Gates.
Other traditional types of art continued to be produced, and the Neo-Babylonians were very keen to stress their ancient heritage. Many sophisticated and finely carved seals survive. After Mesopotamia fell to thePersianAchaemenid Empire, which had much simpler artistic traditions, Mesopotamian art was, withAncient Greek art, the main influence on the cosmopolitan Achaemenid style that emerged,[102] and many ancient elements were retained in the area even in theHellenistic art that succeeded the conquest of the region byAlexander the Great.
The central place of worship was theziggurat, a stepped pyramid with stairs leading to an altar where worshipers would elevate themselves closer to the heavens.
Sculptures, mostly rather small, are the main surviving artworks. In the late periodAssyrian sculpture for palaces was often very large. Most of the Sumerian and Akkadian statues of figures are in a position of prayer. The main types of stone used arelimestone andalabaster.
Zainab Bahrani said that visual art in Babylonia and Assyria was not intended to simply imitate or replicate reality, the goal was to produce a representation that acted as a stand-in or substitute for the real thing. This representation was then perceived as part of actual reality.[103]
AncientMesopotamia is most noted for its construction of mud brick buildings and the construction ofziggurats, occupying a prominent place in each city and consisting of an artificial mound, often rising in huge steps, surmounted by a temple. The mound was no doubt to elevate the temple to a commanding position in what was otherwise a flat river valley. The great city ofUruk had a number of religious precincts, containing many temples larger and more ambitious than any buildings previously known.[104]
The wordziggurat is an anglicized form of the Akkadian wordziqqurratum, the name given to the solid stepped towers of mud brick. It derives from the verbzaqaru, ("to be high"). The buildings are described as being like mountains linking Earth and heaven. TheZiggurat of Ur, excavated byLeonard Woolley, is 64 by 46 meters at base and originally some 12 meters in height with three stories. It was built underUr-Nammu (circa 2100 B.C.) and rebuilt underNabonidus (555–539 B.C.), when it was increased in height to probably seven stories.[105]
Assyrian palaces had a large public court with a suite of apartments on the east side and a series of large banqueting halls on the south side. This was to become the traditional plan of Assyrian palaces, built and adorned for the glorification of the king.[106] Massive amounts ofivory furniture pieces were found in some palaces.
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The preferred jewellery designs used inMesopotamia were natural and geometric motifs such as leaves, cones, spirals, and bunches of grapes. Sumerian and Akkadian jewellery was created fromgold and silver leaf and set with manysemiprecious stones (mostlyagate,carnelian,jasper,lapis lazuli andchalcedony). A number of documents have been found that relate to the trade and production of jewellery from Sumerian sites.
Later Mesopotamian jewellers and craftsmen employed metalworking techniques such ascloisonné,engraving, granulation, andfiligree. The large variety and size of necklaces, bracelets, anklets, pendants, and pins found may be due to the fact that jewellery was worn by both men and women, and perhaps even children.
Important collections include theLouvre Museum, theVorderasiatisches Museum (Berlin, Germany), theBritish Museum (London), theMetropolitan Museum of Art (New York City), and theNational Museum of Iraq (Baghdad). The last was extensively looted after the breakdown of law and order following the2003 invasion of Iraq, but the most important objects have largely been recovered.
Several other museums have good collections, especially of the very numerous cylinder seals. Syrian museums have important collections from sites in modern Syria. Other museums with important collections of Mesopotamian art are: theOriental Institute of Chicago,İstanbul Archaeology Museums (Istanbul, Turkey),University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology,Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (Leiden, the Netherlands) and theIsrael Museum (Jerusalem). The reconstructedIshtar Gate is in thePergamon Museum in Berlin.
