Art Nouveau (/ˌɑːr(t)nuːˈvoʊ/AR(T) noo-VOH;French:[aʁnuvo]ⓘ;lit.'New Art'),Jugendstil in German, is an internationalstyle of art, architecture, andapplied art, especially thedecorative arts. It was often inspired by natural forms such as the sinuous curves of plants and flowers.[1] Other characteristics of Art Nouveau were a sense of dynamism and movement, often given by asymmetry orwhiplash lines, and the use of modern materials, particularly iron, glass, ceramics and later concrete, to create unusual forms and larger open spaces.[2] It was popular between 1890 and 1910 during theBelle Époque period,[3] and was a reaction against theacademicism,eclecticism andhistoricism of 19th century architecture and decorative art.
One major objective of Art Nouveau was to break down the traditional distinction between fine arts (especially painting and sculpture) and applied arts. It was most widely used in interior design, graphic arts, furniture, glass art, textiles, ceramics, jewellery and metal work. The style responded to leading 19th century theoreticians, such as French architectEugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814–1879) and British art criticJohn Ruskin (1819–1900). In Britain, it was influenced byWilliam Morris and theArts and Crafts movement. German architects and designers sought a spiritually upliftingGesamtkunstwerk ('total work of art') that would unify the architecture, furnishings, and art in the interior in a common style, to uplift and inspire the residents.[2]
From Britain, Art Nouveau spread to Belgium onto Spain and France, and then to the rest of Europe, taking on different names and characteristics in each country (seeNaming section below). It often appeared not only in capitals, but also in rapidly growing cities that wanted to establish artistic identities (Turin andPalermo in Italy;Glasgow in Scotland;Munich andDarmstadt in Germany;Barcelona inCatalonia, Spain), as well as in centres of independence movements (Helsinki in Finland, then part of the Russian Empire).
By 1914, with the beginning of theFirst World War, Art Nouveau was largely exhausted. In the 1920s, it was replaced as the dominant architectural and decorative art style byArt Deco and thenmodernism.[7] The Art Nouveau style began to receive more positive attention from critics in the late 1960s, with a major exhibition of the work ofHector Guimard at theMuseum of Modern Art in 1970.[8]
The termArt Nouveau was first used in the 1880s in the Belgian journalL'Art Moderne to describe the work ofLes Vingt, twenty painters and sculptors seeking reform through art. The name was popularized by theMaison de l'Art Nouveau ('House of the New Art'), an art gallery opened in Paris in 1895 by the Franco-Germanart dealerSiegfried Bing. In Britain, the French termArt Nouveau was commonly used, while in France, it was often called by the termStyle moderne (akin to the British termModern Style), orStyle 1900.[9] In France, it was also sometimes calledStyle Jules Verne (after the novelistJules Verne),Style Métro (afterHector Guimard's iron and glass subway entrances),Art Belle Époque, orArt fin de siècle.[10]
Art Nouveau is known by different names in different languages:Jugendstil in German,Stile Liberty in Italian,Modernisme in Catalan, and also known as theModern Style in English. The style is often related to, but not always identical with, styles that emerged in many countries in Europe and elsewhere at about the same time. Their local names were often used in their respective countries to describe the whole movement.
In Belgium, it was sometimes termedStyle coup de fouet ('Whiplash style'),Paling Stijl ('Eel Style'), orStyle nouille ('Noodle style') by its detractors.[10]
InBritain, besides Art Nouveau, it was known as theModern Style, or, because of the works of theGlasgow School, as theGlasgow style.
In Denmark, it is known asSkønvirke ('Work of beauty').
In Germany and Scandinavia, it was calledReformstil ('Reform style'), orJugendstil ('Youth style'), after the popular German art magazineJugend,[10] as well asWellenstil ('Wave style'), orLilienstil ('Lily style').[9] It is now calledJugend in Finland, Sweden, and Norway;Juugend inEstonia; andJūgendstils inLatvia. In Finland, it was also calledKalevala Style.
In Italy, it was often calledstile Liberty ('Liberty style'), afterArthur Lasenby Liberty, the founder of London'sLiberty & Co, whose textile designs were popular. It was also sometimes calledstile floreale ('floral style') orarte nuova ('new art'; not in use anymore).[10]
Viollet-le-Duc was himself a precursor of Art Nouveau: in 1851, atNotre-Dame de Paris, he created a series of mural paintings typical of the style.[22] These paintings were removed in 1945 as deemed non academic. At theChâteau de Roquetaillade in theBordeaux region, his interior decorations dating from 1865 also anticipate Art Nouveau. In his 1872 bookEntretiens sur l'architecture, he wrote, "Use the means and knowledge given to us by our times, without the intervening traditions which are no longer viable today, and in that way we can inaugurate a new architecture. For each function its material; for each material its form and its ornament."[23] This book influenced a generation of architects, includingLouis Sullivan,Victor Horta,Hector Guimard, andAntoni Gaudí.[24]
The French paintersMaurice Denis,Pierre Bonnard andÉdouard Vuillard played an important part in integrating fine arts painting with decoration. "I believe that before everything a painting must decorate", Denis wrote in 1891. "The choice of subjects or scenes is nothing. It is by the value of tones, the coloured surface and the harmony of lines that I can reach the spirit and wake up the emotions."[25] These painters all did both traditional painting and decorative painting on screens, in glass, and in other media.[26]
Another important influence on the new style wasJaponism. This was a wave of enthusiasm forJapanesewoodblock printing, particularly the works ofHiroshige,Hokusai, andUtagawa Kunisada, which were imported into Europe beginning in the 1870s. The enterprisingSiegfried Bing founded a monthly journal,Le Japon artistique in 1888, and published thirty-six issues before it ended in 1891. It influenced both collectors and artists, includingGustav Klimt. The stylised features of Japanese prints appeared in Art Nouveau graphics, porcelain, jewellery, and furniture. Since the beginning of 1860, aFar Eastern influence suddenly manifested. In 1862, art lovers from London or Paris, could buyJapanese artworks, because in that year, Japan appeared for the first time as an exhibitor at theInternational Exhibition in London. Also in 1862, in Paris,La Porte Chinoise store, onRue de Rivoli, was open, where Japaneseukiyo-e and other objects from the Far East were sold. In 1867,Examples of Chinese Ornaments byOwen Jones appeared, and in 1870Art and Industries in Japan by R. Alcock, and two years later, O. H. Moser and T. W. Cutler published books about Japanese art. Some Art Nouveau artists, likeVictor Horta, owned a collection of Far Eastern art, especially Japanese.[11]
New technologies in printing and publishing allowed Art Nouveau to quickly reach a global audience. Art magazines, illustrated with photographs and colourlithographs, played an essential role in popularizing the new style.The Studio in England,Arts et idèes andArt et décoration in France, andJugend in Germany allowed the style to spread rapidly to all corners of Europe.Aubrey Beardsley in England, andEugène Grasset,Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, andFélix Vallotton achieved international recognition as illustrators.[27]With the posters byJules Chéret for dancerLoie Fuller in 1893, and byAlphonse Mucha for actressSarah Bernhardt in 1895, the poster became not just advertising, but an art form. Sarah Bernhardt set aside large numbers of her posters for sale to collectors.[28]
The first Art Nouveau town houses, theHankar House byPaul Hankar (1893) and theHôtel Tassel byVictor Horta (1892–1893),[4][5] were built almost simultaneously inBrussels. They were similar in their originality, but very different in their design and appearance.
Victor Horta was among the most influential architects of early Art Nouveau, and his Hôtel Tassel (1892–1893) in Brussels is one of the style's landmarks.[29][30] Horta's architectural training was as an assistant toAlphonse Balat, architect toKing Leopold II, constructing the monumental iron and glassRoyal Greenhouses of Laeken.[31] He was a great admiror ofViollet-le-Duc, with whose ideas he completely identified.[32][33] In 1892–1893, he put this experience to a very different use. He designed the residence of a prominent Belgian chemist, Émile Tassel, on a very narrow and deep site. The central element of the house was the stairway, not enclosed by walls, but open, decorated with a curling wrought-iron railing, and placed beneath a high skylight. The floors were supported by slender iron columns like the trunks of trees. The mosaic floors and walls were decorated with delicatearabesques in floral and vegetal forms, which became the most popular signature of the style.[34][35] In a short period, Horta built three more town houses, all with open interiors, and all with skylights for maximum interior light: theHôtel Solvay, theHôtel van Eetvelde (forEdmond van Eetvelde), and theMaison & Atelier Horta. All four are now part of aUNESCO World Heritage Site.
Paul Hankar was also an innovator of early Art Nouveau. Born atFrameries, inHainaut, the son of a master stone cutter, he had studied ornamental sculpture and decoration at theRoyal Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels from 1873 to 1884, whilst working as an ornamental sculptor. From 1879 to 1894, he worked in the studio of the prominent architectHenri Beyaert, a master ofeclectic andneoclassical architecture. Through Beyaert, Hankar also became an admirer of Viollet-le-Duc.[36] In 1893, Hankar designed and built the Hankar House, his own residence in Brussels. With a goal to create a synthesis of fine arts and decorative arts, he brought together the sculptor René Janssens and the painterAlbert Ciamberlani to decorate the interior and exterior withsgraffiti, or murals. The façade and balconies featured iron decoration and curling lines in stylised floral patterns, which became an important feature of Art Nouveau. Based on this model, he built several houses for his artist friends. He also designed a series of innovative glass display windows for Brussels shops, restaurants and galleries, in what a local critic called "a veritable delirium of originality".[37] He died in 1901, just as the movement was beginning to receive recognition.[38]
Henry van de Velde, born inAntwerp, was another founding figure in the birth of Art Nouveau. Van de Velde's designs included the interior of his residence in Brussels, theVilla Bloemenwerf (1895).[39][40] The exterior of the house was inspired by theRed House, the residence of writer and theoristWilliam Morris, the founder of theArts and Crafts movement. Trained as a painter, Van de Velde turned to illustration, then to furniture design, and finally to architecture. For the Villa Bloemenwerf, he created the textiles, wallpaper, silverware, jewellery, and even clothing, that matched the style of the residence.[41] Van de Velde went to Paris, where he designed furniture and decoration for the German-Frenchart dealerSiegfried Bing, whose Paris gallery gave the style its name. He was also an early Art Nouveau theorist, demanding the use of dynamic, often opposing lines. Van de Velde wrote: "A line is a force like all the other elementary forces. Several lines put together but opposed have a presence as strong as several forces". In 1906, he departed Belgium forWeimar (Germany), where he founded the Grand-Ducal School of Arts and Crafts, where the teaching of historical styles was forbidden. He played an important role in theGerman Werkbund, before returning to Belgium.[42]
The debut of Art Nouveau architecture in Brussels was accompanied by a wave of Decorative Art in the new style. Important artists includedGustave Strauven, who used wrought iron to achieve baroque effects on Brussels façades; the furniture designerGustave Serrurier-Bovy, known for his highly original chairs and articulated metal furniture; and the jewellery designerPhilippe Wolfers, who made jewellery in the form of dragonflies, butterflies, swans and serpents.[43]
TheBrussels International Exposition held in 1897 brought international attention to the style; Horta, Hankar, Van de Velde, and Serrurier-Bovy, among others, took part in the design of the fair, andHenri Privat-Livemont created the poster for the exhibition.
Paris – Maison de l'Art Nouveau (1895) and Castel Beranger (1895–1898)
The Franco-German art dealer and publisherSiegfried Bing played a key role in publicizing the style. In 1891, he founded a magazine devoted to the art of Japan, which helped publicizeJaponism in Europe. In 1892, he organized an exhibit of seven artists, among themPierre Bonnard,Félix Vallotton,Édouard Vuillard,Toulouse-Lautrec andEugène Grasset, which included both modern painting and decorative work. This exhibition was shown at theSociété nationale des beaux-arts in 1895. In the same year, Bing opened a new gallery at22 rue de Provence in Paris, theMaison de l'Art Nouveau, devoted to new works in both the fine and decorative arts. The interior and furniture of the gallery were designed by the Belgian architectHenry van de Velde, one of the pioneers of Art Nouveau architecture. TheMaison de l'Art Nouveau showed paintings byGeorges Seurat,Paul Signac andToulouse-Lautrec, glass fromLouis Comfort Tiffany andÉmile Gallé, jewellery byRené Lalique, and posters byAubrey Beardsley. The works shown there were not at all uniform in style. Bing wrote in 1902, "Art Nouveau, at the time of its creation, did not aspire in any way to have the honor of becoming a generic term. It was simply the name of a house opened as a rallying point for all the young and ardent artists impatient to show the modernity of their tendencies."[44]
The style was quickly noticed in neighbouring France. After visiting Horta's Hôtel Tassel,Hector Guimard built theCastel Béranger, among the first Paris buildings in the new style, between 1895 and 1898.[nb 1] Parisians had been complaining of the monotony of the architecture of the boulevards built underNapoleon III byGeorges-Eugène Haussmann. The Castel Beranger was a curious blend of Neo-Gothic and Art Nouveau, with curvingwhiplash lines and natural forms. Guimard, a skilled publicist for his work, declared: "What must be avoided at all cost is...the parallel and symmetry. Nature is the greatest builder of all, and nature makes nothing that is parallel and nothing that is symmetric."[46]
Parisians welcomed Guimard's original and picturesque style; the Castel Béranger was chosen as one of the best new façades in Paris, launching Guimard's career. Guimard was given the commission to design the entrances for the newParis Métro system, which brought the style to the attention of the millions of visitors to the city's 1900Exposition Universelle.[10]
Menu designed byAlphonse Mucha for the restaurant of the Bosnian Pavilion
Portico of theSevres Porcelain Pavilion, now on Square Félix-Desruelles
The Paris 1900Exposition universelle marked the high point of Art Nouveau. Between April and November 1900, it attracted nearly fifty million visitors from around the world, and showcased the architecture, design, glassware, furniture and decorative objects of the style. The architecture of the Exposition was often a mixture of Art Nouveau andBeaux-Arts architecture: the main exhibit hall, theGrand Palais had a Beaux-Arts façade completely unrelated to the spectacular Art Nouveau stairway and exhibit hall in the interior.
The Exposition was the first international showcase for Art Nouveau designers and artists from across Europe and beyond. Prize winners and participants includedAlphonse Mucha, who made murals for the pavilion ofBosnia-Herzegovina and designed the menu for the restaurant of the pavilion; the decorators and designersBruno Paul andBruno Möhring from Berlin;Carlo Bugatti fromTurin; Bernhardt Pankok fromBavaria; The Russian architect-designerFyodor Schechtel, andLouis Comfort Tiffany and Company from the United States.[49] The Viennese architectOtto Wagner was a member of the jury, and presented a model of the Art Nouveau bathroom of his own town apartment in Vienna, featuring a glass bathtub.[50]Josef Hoffmann designed the Viennese exhibit at the Paris exposition, highlighting the designs of theVienna Secession.[51]Eliel Saarinen first won international recognition for his imaginative design of the pavilion of Finland.[52]
Following the 1900 Exposition, the capital of Art Nouveau was Paris. The most extravagant residences in the style were built byJules Lavirotte, who entirely covered the façades with ceramic sculptural decoration. The most flamboyant example is theLavirotte Building, at 29,avenue Rapp (1901). Office buildings and department stores featured high courtyards covered with stained glass cupolas and ceramic decoration. The style was particularly popular in restaurants and cafés, includingMaxim's at3,rue Royale, andLe Train bleu at theGare de Lyon (1900).[54]
The status of Paris attracted foreign artists to the city. The Swiss-born artistEugène Grasset was one of the first creators of French Art Nouveau posters. He helped decorate the famous cabaretLe Chat Noir in 1885, made his first posters for theFêtes de Paris and a celebrated poster ofSarah Bernhardt in 1890. In Paris, he taught at the Guérin school of art (École normale d'enseignement du dessin), where his students includedAugusto Giacometti andPaul Berthon.[55][56] Swiss-bornThéophile-Alexandre Steinlen created the famous poster for the PariscabaretLe Chat noir in 1896. TheCzech artistAlphonse Mucha (1860–1939) arrived in Paris in 1888, and in 1895, made a poster for actress Sarah Bernhardt in the playGismonda byVictorien Sardou inThéâtre de la Renaissance. The success of this poster led to a contract to produce posters for six more plays by Bernhardt.
The city ofNancy inLorraine became the other French capital of the new style. In 1901, theAlliance provinciale des industries d'art, also known as theÉcole de Nancy, was founded, dedicated to upsetting the hierarchy that put painting and sculpture above the decorative arts. The major artists working there included the glass vase and lamp creatorsÉmile Gallé, theDaum brothers in glass design, and the designerLouis Majorelle, who created furniture with graceful floral and vegetal forms. The architectHenri Sauvage brought the new architectural style to Nancy with hisVilla Majorelle in 1902.
The French style was widely propagated by new magazines, includingThe Studio,Arts et Idées andArt et Décoration, whose photographs and colourlithographs made the style known to designers and wealthy clients around the world.
In France, the style reached its summit in 1900, and thereafter slipped rapidly out of fashion, virtually disappearing from France by 1905. Art Nouveau was a luxury style, which required expert and highly-paid craftsmen, and could not be easily or cheaply mass-produced. One of the few Art Nouveau products that could be mass-produced was the perfume bottle, and these are still manufactured in the style today.
House of the architect Paul Cauchie in Brussels, featuringsgraffito (1905)
Belgium was an early centre of Art Nouveau, thanks largely to the architecture ofVictor Horta, who designed one of the first Art Nouveau houses, theHôtel Tassel in 1893, and three other townhouses in variations of the same style. They are nowUNESCO World Heritage sites. Horta had a strong influence on the work of the youngHector Guimard, who came to see the Hôtel Tassel under construction, and later declared that Horta was the "inventor" of the Art Nouveau.[57] Horta's innovation was not the façade, but the interior, using an abundance of iron and glass to open up space and flood the rooms with light, and decorating them with wrought iron columns and railings in curving vegetal forms, which were echoed on the floors and walls, as well as the furniture and carpets which Horta designed.[58]
Paul Hankar was another pioneer of Brussels' Art Nouveau. His house was completed in 1893, the same year as Horta's Hôtel Tassel, and featuredsgraffiti murals on the façade. Hankar was influenced by bothViollet-le-Duc and the ideas of the EnglishArts and Crafts movement. His conception idea was to bring together decorative and fine arts in a coherent whole. He commissioned the sculptor Alfred Crick and the painterAdolphe Crespin [fr] to decorate the façades of houses with their work. The most striking example was the house and studio built for the artist Albert Ciamberlani at 48,rue Defacqz/Defacqzstraat in Brussels, for which he created an exuberant façade covered withsgraffito murals with painted figures and ornament, recreating the decorative architecture of theQuattrocento, or 15th-century Italy.[31] Hankar died in 1901, when his work was just receiving recognition.[59]
Gustave Strauven began his career as an assistant designer working with Horta, before he started his own practice at age 21, making some of the most extravagant Art Nouveau buildings in Brussels. His most famous work is theSaint-Cyr House at 11,square Ambiorix/Ambiorixsquare. The house is only 4 metres (13 ft) wide, but is given extraordinary height by his elaborate architectural inventions. It is entirely covered bypolychrome bricks and a network of curling vegetal forms inwrought iron, in a virtually Art Nouveau-Baroque style.[60]
Other important Art Nouveau artists from Belgium included the architect and designerHenry van de Velde, though the most important part of his career was spent in Germany; he strongly influenced the decoration of theJugendstil. Others included the decoratorGustave Serrurier-Bovy, and the graphic artistFernand Khnopff.[5][61][62] Belgian designers took advantage of an abundant supply ofivory imported from theBelgian Congo; mixed sculptures, combining stone, metal and ivory, by such artists asPhilippe Wolfers, was popular.[63]
In the Netherlands, the style was known as theNieuwe Stijl ('New Style'), orNieuwe Kunst ('New Art'), and it took a different direction from the more floral and curving style in Belgium. It was influenced by the more geometric and stylised forms of the GermanJugendstil and AustrianVienna Secession.[63] It was also influenced by the art and imported woods fromIndonesia, then theDutch East Indies, particularly the designs of the textiles andbatik fromJava.
The most important architect and furniture designer in the style wasHendrik Petrus Berlage, who denounced historical styles and advocated a purely functional architecture. He wrote, "It is necessary to fight against the art of illusion, to and to recognize the lie, in order to find the essence and not the illusion."[64] LikeVictor Horta andGaudí, he was an admirer of architectural theories ofViollet-le-Duc.[64] His furniture was designed to be strictly functional, and to respect the natural forms of wood, rather than bending or twisting it as if it were metal. He pointed to the example of Egyptian furniture, and preferred chairs with right angles. His first and most famous architectural work was theBeurs van Berlage (1896–1903), the Amsterdam Commodities Exchange, which he built following the principles ofconstructivism. Everything was functional, including the lines of rivets that decorated the walls of the main room. He often included very tall towers to his buildings to make them more prominent, a practice used by other Art Nouveau architects of the period, includingJoseph Maria Olbrich in Vienna andEliel Saarinen in Finland.[65]
Prominent graphic artists and illustrators in the style includedJan Toorop, whose work inclined towardmysticism andsymbolism, even in his posters for salad oil. In their colors and designs, they also sometimes showed the influence of the art of Java.[65]
Important figures in Dutch ceramics and porcelain included Jurriaan Kok andTheo Colenbrander. They used colorful floral pattern and more traditional Art Nouveau motifs, combined with unusual forms of pottery and contrasting dark and light colors, borrowed from the batik decoration of Java.[66]
Art Nouveau had its roots in Britain, in theArts and Crafts movement which started in the 1860s and reached international recognition by the 1880s. It called for better treatment of decorative arts, and took inspiration in medieval craftmanship and design, and nature.[69] One notable early example of the Modern Style isArthur Mackmurdo's design for the cover of his essay on the city churches ofSir Christopher Wren, published in 1883, as is his Mahogany chair from the same year.[70]
Other important innovators in Britain included the graphic designersAubrey Beardsley whose drawings featured the curved lines that became the most recognizable feature of the style. Free-flowingwrought iron from the 1880s could also be adduced, or some flat floral textile designs, most of which owed some impetus to patterns of 19th century design. Other British graphic artists who had an important place in the style includedWalter Crane andCharles Ashbee.[71]
TheLiberty department store in London played an important role, through its colourful stylised floral designs for textiles, and the silver, pewter, and jewellery designs ofManxman (of Scottish descent)Archibald Knox. His jewellery designs in materials and forms broke away entirely from the historical traditions of jewellery design.
For Art Nouveau architecture and furniture design, the most important centre in Britain wasGlasgow, with the creations ofCharles Rennie Mackintosh and theGlasgow School, whose work was inspired byScottish baronial architecture and Japanese design.[72] Beginning in 1895, Mackintosh displayed his designs at international expositions in London, Vienna, and Turin; his designs particularly influenced the Secession Style in Vienna. His architectural creations included the Glasgow Herald Building (1894) and the library of theGlasgow School of Art (1897). He also established a major reputation as a furniture designer and decorator, working closely with his wife,Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh, a prominent painter and designer. Together they created striking designs that combined geometric straight lines with gently curving floral decoration, particularly a famous symbol of the style, the Glasgow Rose".[73]
Léon-Victor Solon, made an important contribution to Art Nouveau ceramics as art director at Mintons. He specialised in plaques and intube-lined vases marketed as "secessionist ware" (usually described as named after theViennese art movement).[74] Apart from ceramics, he designed textiles for theLeek silk industry[75] anddoublures for a bookbinder (G.T.Bagguley of Newcastle-under-Lyme), who patented theSutherland binding in 1895.
George Skipper was perhaps the most active Art Nouveau architect in England. The Edward Everard building in Bristol, built during 1900–01 to house theprinting works of Edward Everard, features an Art Nouveau façade. The figures depicted are ofJohannes Gutenberg andWilliam Morris, both eminent in the field of printing. A winged figure symbolises the "Spirit of Light", while a figure holding a lamp and mirror symbolises light and truth.
German Art Nouveau is commonly known by its German name,Jugendstil, or 'Youth Style'. The name is taken from the artistic journal,Jugend ('Youth'), which was published in Munich. The magazine was founded in 1896 byGeorg Hirth, who remained editor until his death in 1916. The magazine survived until 1940. During the early 20th century,Jugendstil was applied only to the graphic arts.[76] It referred especially to the forms oftypography andgraphic design found in German magazines such asJugend,Pan, andSimplicissimus.Jugendstil was later applied to other versions of Art Nouveau in Germany, the Netherlands. The term was borrowed from German by several languages of theBaltic states andNordic countries to describe Art Nouveau (seeNaming section).[12][77]
The journalsJugend andSimplicissimus, published in Munich, andPan, published in Berlin, were important proponents of theJugendstil.Jugendstil art combined sinuous curves and more geometric lines, and was used for covers of novels, advertisements, andexhibition posters. Designers often created original styles oftypeface that worked harmoniously with the image, e.g.Arnold Böcklin typeface in 1904.
Otto Eckmann was one of the most prominent German artists associated with bothDie Jugend andPan. His favourite animal was the swan, and so great was his influence that the swan came to serve as the symbol of the entire movement. Another prominent designer in the style wasRichard Riemerschmid, who made furniture, pottery, and other decorative objects in a sober, geometric style that pointed forward toward Art Deco.[79] The Swiss artistHermann Obrist, living in Munich, illustrated thecoup de fouet or whiplash motif, a highly stylised double curve suggesting motion taken from the stem of thecyclamen flower.
In Berlin, Jugendstil was chosen for the construction of several railway stations. The most notable[85] isBülowstraße byBruno Möhring (1900–1902), other examples areMexikoplatz (1902–1904),Botanischer Garten (1908–1909),Frohnau (1908–1910),Wittenbergplatz (1911–1913) andPankow (1912–1914) stations. Another notable structure of Berlin isHackesche Höfe (1906) which used polychrome glazed brick for the courtyard façade.
Vienna became the centre of a distinct variant of Art Nouveau, which became known as theVienna Secession. The movement took its name fromMunich Secession established in 1892. Vienna Secession was founded in April 1897 by a group of artists that includedGustav Klimt,Koloman Moser,Josef Hoffmann,Joseph Maria Olbrich,Max Kurzweil,Ernst Stöhr, and others.[78] The painter Klimt became the president of the group. They objected to the conservative orientation towardhistoricism expressed byVienna Künstlerhaus, the official union of artists. The Secession founded a magazine,Ver Sacrum, to promote their works in all media.[86] The architect Joseph Olbrich designed the domed Secession building in the new style, which became a showcase for the paintings of Gustav Klimt and other Secession artists.
Klimt became the best-known of the Secession painters, often erasing the border between fine art painting and decorative painting.Koloman Moser was an extremely versatile artist in the style; his work including magazine illustrations, architecture, silverware, ceramics, porcelain, textiles, stained glass windows, and furniture.
The most prominent architect of theVienna Secession wasOtto Wagner,[87] he joined the movement soon after its inception to follow his students Hoffmann and Olbrich. His major projects included several stations of the urban rail network (theStadtbahn), theLinke Wienzeile Buildings (consisting of Majolica House, the House of Medallions and the house at Köstlergasse). The Karlsplatz Station is now an exhibition hall of theVienna Museum. TheKirche am Steinhof of Steinhof Psychiatric hospital (1904–1907) is a unique and finely crafted example of Secession religious architecture, with a traditional domed exterior but sleek, modern gold and white interior lit by abundance of modern stained glass.
The pioneer and prophet of theSzecesszió ('Secession' in Hungarian), the architectÖdön Lechner, created buildings which marked a transition from historicism to modernism for Hungarian architecture.[93] His idea for a Hungarian architectural style was the use ofarchitectural ceramics and oriental motifs. In his works, he used pygorganite placed in production by 1886 byZsolnay Porcelain Manufactory.[93] This material was used in the construction of notable Hungarian buildings of other styles, e.g. theHungarian Parliament Building andMatthias Church.
Works by Ödön Lechner[94] include theMuseum of Applied Arts (1893–1896), other building with similar distinctive features areGeological Museum (1896–1899) and The Postal Savings Bank building (1899–1902), all inBudapest. However, due to the opposition of Hungarian architectural establishment to Lechner's success, he soon was unable to get new commissions comparable to his earlier buildings.[93] But Lechner was an inspiration and a master to the following generation of architects who played the main role in popularising the new style.[93] Within the process ofMagyarization numerous buildings were commissioned to his disciples in outskirts of the kingdom: e.g.Marcell Komor [hu] andDezső Jakab were commissioned to build theSynagogue (1901–1903) and Town Hall (1908–1910) in Szabadka (nowSubotica,Serbia), County Prefecture (1905–1907) andPalace of Culture (1911–1913) in Marosvásárhely (nowTârgu Mureș,Romania). Later Lechner himself built theBlue Church in Pozsony (present-dayBratislava,Slovakia) in 1909–1913.
Another important architect wasKároly Kós who was a follower ofJohn Ruskin andWilliam Morris. Kós took the FinnishNational Romanticism movement as a model and the Transylvanian vernacular as the inspiration.[95] His most notable buildings include the Roman Catholic Church inZebegény (1908–09), pavilions for the Budapest Municipal Zoo (1909–1912) and the Székely National Museum in Sepsiszentgyörgy (nowSfântu Gheorghe, Romania, 1911–12).
Pax, mosaic byMiksa Róth, which received the silver medal at the Paris World Exhibition in 1900
Cabinet by Ödön Faragó, from Budapest (1901)
Window with flower motives from the Villa Alpár in Budapest, by Miksa Róth (1903)
An associate to Gödöllő Art Colony,[98]Miksa Róth was also involved in several dozen Szecesszió projects, including Budapest buildings includingGresham Palace (stained glass, 1906) andTörök Bank [fr] (mosaics, 1906) and also created mosaics and stained glass forPalace of Culture (1911–1913) in Marosvásárhely.
A notable furniture designer isÖdön Faragó [hu] who combined traditional popular architecture, oriental architecture and international Art Nouveau in a highly picturesque style.Pál Horti [hu], another Hungarian designer, had a much more sober and functional style, made of oak with delicate traceries of ebony and brass.
The style of combining Hungarian Szecesszió and national architectural elements was typical for aSlovak architectDušan Jurkovič. His most original works are the Cultural House in Szakolca (nowSkalica inSlovakia, 1905), the buildings of spa inLuhačovice (now Czech Republic) in 1901–1903 and 35 war cemeteries nearNowy Żmigród inGalicia (now Poland), most of them heavily influenced by local Lemko (Rusyn) folk art and carpentry (1915–1917).
One of the most famous buildings in Bielsko-Biała is the so-calledFrog House by Emanuel Rost (1903). Other important examples of Secession were designed by Vienesse architects:Max Fabiani, the author of the house at 1 Barlickiego Street (1900) as well asLeopold Bauer, who designed the house at 51 Stojałowskiego Street (1903) and the rebuilding of theSaint Nicholas' Cathedral (1909–10).
Secession in Slovenia, Bosnia, Croatia and Trieste
The most prolificSlovenian Secession architect wasCiril Metod Koch.[100] He studied atOtto Wagner's classes in Vienna and worked in the Laybach (nowLjubljana,Slovenia) City Council from 1894 to 1923. After the earthquake in Laybach in 1895, he designed many secular buildings in Secession style that he adopted from 1900 to 1910:[100] Pogačnik House (1901), Čuden Building (1901), The Farmers Loan Bank (1906–07), renovated Hauptmann Building in Secession style in 1904. The highlight of his career was the Loan Bank in Radmannsdorf (nowRadovljica) in 1906.[100]
Other important Slovene architect, who was active also in Bosnia, wasJosip Vancaš, the authot of such works likeGrand Hotel Union (1902–1903) or City Savings Bank in Ljubljana (1902–1903) as well as theJešua D. Salom Mansion (1901) and the Central Post Office in Sarajevo (1907–1913). AlsoJože Plečnik andMax Fabiani, both importantVienna Secession architects, were born in Slovenia. The latter designed some buildings in Slovenia and Trieste, like the Bartoli House inTrieste (1906).
Mixed with Beaux-Arts architecture - Former Al. Assan shop (Strada Lipscani no. 72–74) in Bucharest, unknown architect (before 1906)[102]
Mixed with Beaux-Arts architecture - Mița the Cyclist House in Bucharest by Nicolae C. Mihăescu (1908), mix of Beaux Arts and Art Nouveau[103]
Art Nouveau appeared in Romania during the same years as in Western Europe (early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914), but here few of the buildings are in this style, theBeaux-Arts style being predominant. The most famous is theConstanța Casino. Most of the Romanian examples of Art Nouveau architecture are actually mixes of Beaux Arts and Art Nouveau, like the Romulus Porescu House or house no. 61 on Strada Vasile Lascăr, both in Bucharest.[104] This is similar to what was happening in France, where eclecticism was more popular, pure Art Nouveau buildings and structures being relatively rare. Despite most houses from the reign of Carol I being Beaux-Arts, some of them have Art Nouveau stoves inside, since the style of the exterior did not always dictate that of the stove or the entire interior.
Young woman byȘtefan Luchian, drawing for the cover ofIleana magazine (1900)
Spring, decorative panel by Luchian (1901)
Woman with Lyre (Allegory of Music) byNicolae Vermont (1903)
One of the most notable Art Nouveau painters from Romania wasȘtefan Luchian, who quickly took over the innovative and decorative directions of Art Nouveau for a short period of time. This period coincided with the founding of the Ileana Society in 1897, of which he was a founding member, a society that organized an exhibition at the Union Hotel titledThe Exhibition of Independent Artists (1898) and published theIleana Magazine.[105]
Transylvania has examples of both Art Nouveau and Romanian Revival buildings, the former being from the Austro-Hungarian era. Most of them can be found inOradea, nicknamed the "Art Nouveau capital of Romania",[106] but also inTimișoara,Târgu Mureș andSibiu.[107][108][109]
Entrance ofCasa Guazzoni in Milan by Giovanni Battista Bossi (1904–1906)
Art Nouveau in Italy was known asarte nuova,stile floreale,stile moderno and especiallystile Liberty.Liberty style took its name fromArthur Lasenby Liberty and the store he founded in 1874 in London,Liberty department store, which specialised in importing ornaments, textiles and art objects from Japan and the Far East, and whose colourful textiles which were particularly popular in Italy. Notable Italian designers in the style includedGalileo Chini, whose ceramics were often inspired both bymajolica patterns. He was later known as a painter and a theatrical scenery designer; he designed the sets for two celebrated Puccini operasGianni Schicchi andTurandot.[110][111][12]
Liberty style architecture varied greatly, and often followed historical styles, particularly the Baroque. Façades were often drenched with decoration and sculpture. Examples of the Liberty style include the Villino Florio (1899–1902) byErnesto Basile inPalermo; thePalazzo Castiglioni inMilan byGiuseppe Sommaruga (1901–1903); Milan, and theCasa Guazzoni (1904–05) in Milan by Giovanni Battista Bossi (1904–06).[112]
Colorful frescoes, painted or in ceramics, and sculpture, both in the interior and exterior, were a popular feature of Liberty style. They drew upon both classical and floral themes. as in the baths of Acque della Salute, and in the Casa Guazzoni in Milan.
The most important figure inLiberty style design wasCarlo Bugatti, the son of an architect and decorator, father ofRembrandt Bugatti, Liberty sculptor, and ofEttore Bugatti, famous automobile designer. He studied at theMilanese Academy of Brera, and later theAcadémie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. His work was distinguished by its exoticism and eccentricity, included silverware, textiles, ceramics, and musical instruments, but he is best remembered for his innovative furniture designs, shown first in the 1888 Milan Fine Arts Fair. His furniture often featured a keyhole design, and had unusual coverings, including parchment and silk, and inlays of bone and ivory. It also sometimes had surprising organic shapes, copied after snails and cobras.[113]
Due to the close proximity to Austria–Hungary andVojvodina being part of the empire until 1918, both the Vienna Secession and Hungarian Szecesszió were prevalent movements in what is today's northern Serbia, as well as the Capital ofBelgrade.[114] Famous Austrian and Hungarian architects would design many buildings inSubotica,Novi Sad,Palić,Zrenjanin,Vrbas,Senta, andKikinda. Art Nouveau heritage inBelgrade,Pančevo,Aranđelovac, andVrnjačka Banja are a mixture of French, German, Austrian, Hungarian, and local Serbian movements. From the curvy floral beauty of the Subotica's Synagogue to the Morava-style inspired rosettes on Belgrade's telegraph building, Art Nouveau architecture takes various shapes in present-day Serbia.
In the early 1900s, north of the Sava and the Danube, resurgent Hungarian national sentiment infused the buildings inSubotica andSenta with local floral ethnic motifs, while in the tiny Kingdom of Serbia, national romantics like Branko Tanezević and Dragutin Inkiostiri-Medenjak (both born in the Austro-Hungarian Empire), translated Serbia's traditional motifs into marvellous buildings. Other architects, like Milan Antonović and Nikola Nestorović brought the then-fashionable sinuous lines and natural motifs to the homes and businesses of their wealthy patrons, so they could show off their worldliness and keeping up with the trends in Paris, Munich and Vienna.[115]
A highly original variant of the style emerged inBarcelona,Catalonia, at about the same time that the Art Nouveau style appeared in Belgium and France. It was calledModernisme in Catalan andModernismo in Spanish. Its most famous creator wasAntoni Gaudí. Gaudí used floral and organic forms in a very novel way inPalau Güell (1886–1890). According to UNESCO, "the architecture of the park combined elements from the Arts and Crafts movement, Symbolism, Expressionism, and Rationalism, and presaged and influenced many forms and techniques of 20th-century Modernism."[117][118][119]He integrated crafts asceramics,stained glass,wrought ironworkforging andcarpentry into his architecture. In hisGüell Pavilions (1884–1887) and thenParc Güell (1900–1914) he also used a new technique calledtrencadís, which used waste ceramic pieces. His designs from about 1903, theCasa Batlló (1904–1906) andCasa Milà (1906–1912),[116] are most closely related to the stylistic elements of Art Nouveau.[120] Later structures such asSagrada Família combined Art Nouveau elements with revivalistNeo-Gothic.[120]Casa Batlló,Casa Milà,Güell Pavilions, andParc Güell were results of his collaboration withJosep Maria Jujol, who himself created houses inSant Joan Despí (1913–1926), several churches nearTarragona (1918 and 1926) and the sinuous Casa Planells (1924) inBarcelona.
Window of the Palace of the Valencian Regional Exposition, inValencia (1908)
TheModernisme movement left a wide art heritage including drawings, paintings, sculptures, glass and metal work, mosaics, ceramics, and furniture. A part of it can be found inMuseu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya.
Antoni Gaudí designed furniture for many of the houses he built; one example is an armchair called thefor the Battle House. He influenced another notable Catalan furniture designer,Gaspar Homar [ca] (1870–1953) who often combined marquetry and mosaics with his furnishings.[123]
Façade of Major Pessoa Residence inAveiro (1907–1909)[124]
Atrium of Major Pessoa Residence
Details of Almirante Reis, 2-2K building in Lisbon (1908)
Ceramic tile of Cooperativa Agrícola in Aveiro (1913)
The Art Nouveau variant inAveiro (Portugal) was calledArte Nova, and its principal characteristic feature was ostentation: the style was used by bourgeoisie who wanted to express their wealth on the façades while leaving the interiors conservative.[125] Another distinctive feature of Arte Nova was the use of locally produced tiles with Art Nouveau motifs.[125]
The most influential artist of Arte Nova was Francisco Augusto da Silva Rocha.[125] Though he was not trained as an architect, he designed many buildings in Aveiro and in other cities in Portugal.[126][125] One of them, the Major Pessoa residence, has both an Art Nouveau façade and interior, and now hosts the Museum of Arte Nova.[125]
The architects of the Finnish pavilion at the Exposition wereHerman Gesellius,Armas Lindgren, andEliel Saarinen. They worked together from 1896 to 1905 and created many notable buildings inHelsinki includingPohjola Insurance building (1899–1901) andNational Museum of Finland (1905–1910)[131] as well as their joint residenceHvitträsk inKirkkonummi (1902). Architects were inspired by Nordic legends and nature, rough granite façade thus became a symbol for belonging to the Finnish nation.[132] After the firm dissolved, Saarinen designed theHelsinki Railway Station (1905–1914) in clearer forms, influenced by American architecture.[132] The sculptor who worked with Saarinen in construction of National Museum of Finland and Helsinki Railway Station wasEmil Wikström.
Ornaments of a door in Art Nouveau Centre in Ålesund
Norway also was aspiring independence (from Sweden) and local Art Nouveau was connected with a revival inspired byViking folk art and crafts. Notable designers included Lars Kisarvik, who designed chairs with traditional Viking andCeltic patterns, andGerhard Munthe, who designed a chair with a stylised dragon-head emblem from ancient Viking ships, as well as a wide variety of posters, paintings and graphics.[136]
The Norwegiantown of Ålesund is regarded as the main centre of Art Nouveau in Scandinavia because it was completely reconstructed after a fire of 23 January 1904.[137] About 350 buildings were built between 1904 and 1907 under an urban plan designed by the engineer Frederik Næsser. The merger of unity and variety gave birth to a style known as Ål Stil. Buildings of the style have linear decor and echoes of both Jugendstil and vernacular elements, e.g. towers ofstave churches or the crested roofs.[137] One of the buildings, Swan Pharmacy, now hosts theArt Nouveau Centre.
Program design forAfternoon of a Faun by Bakst forBallets Russes (1912)
Модерн ('Modern') was a very colourful Russian variation of Art Nouveau which appeared in Moscow andSaint Petersburg in 1898 with the publication of a new art journal,Мир искусства (Mir Iskusstva, 'The World of Art'), by Russian artistsAlexandre Benois andLéon Bakst, and chief editorSergei Diaghilev. The magazine organized exhibitions of leading Russian artists, includingMikhail Vrubel,Konstantin Somov,Isaac Levitan, and the book illustratorIvan Bilibin. The World of Art style made less use of the vegetal and floral forms of French Art Nouveau; it drew heavily upon the bright colours and exotic designs of Russian folklore and fairy tales. The most influential contribution of theMir Iskusstva was the creation of a new ballet company, theBallets Russes, headed by Diaghilev, with costumes and sets designed by Bakst and Benois. The new ballet company premiered in Paris in 1909, and performed there every year through 1913. The exotic and colourful sets designed by Benois and Bakst had a major impact on French art and design. The costume and set designs were reproduced in the leading Paris magazines,L'Illustration,La Vie parisienne andGazette du bon ton, and the Russian style became known in Paris asà la Bakst. The company was stranded in Paris first by the outbreak of World War I, and then by theRussian Revolution in 1917, and ironically never performed in Russia.[141]
Of Russian architects, the most prominent in the pure Art Nouveau style wasFyodor Schechtel. The most famous example is theRyabushinsky House in Moscow. It was built by a Russian businessman and newspaper owner, and then, after theRussian Revolution, became the residence of the writerMaxim Gorky, and is now theGorky Museum. Its main staircase, made of a polished aggregate of concrete, marble and granite, has flowing, curling lines like the waves of the sea, and is illuminated by a lamp in the form of a floating jellyfish. The interior also features doors, windows and ceiling decorated with colorful frescoes of mosaic.[142] Schechtel, who is also considered a major figure inRussian symbolism, designed several other landmark buildings in Moscow, including the rebuilding of theMoscow Yaroslavsky railway station, in a more traditional Moscow revival style.[142]
Stairway in Pēkšēns House byKonstantīns Pēkšēns (1903), now hosting Riga Jūgendstils museum
National Romantic decoration on a house built by Pēkšēns (1908)
Ministry of Education, built by Edgar Friesendorf (1911)
Riga, the present-day capital ofLatvia, was at the time one of the major cities of theRussian Empire.Art Nouveau architecture in Riga nevertheless developed according to its own dynamics, and the style became overwhelmingly popular in the city. Soon after the Latvian Ethnographic Exhibition in 1896 and the Industrial and Handicrafts Exhibition in 1901, Art Nouveau became the dominant style in the city.[144] Thus Art Nouveau architecture accounts for one-third of all the buildings in the centre of Riga, making it the city with the highest concentration of such buildings anywhere in the world. The quantity and quality of Art Nouveau architecture was among the criteria for including Riga inUNESCO World Cultural Heritage.[145]
There were different variations of Art Nouveau architecture in Riga:
in Eclectic Art Nouveau, floral and other nature-inspired elements of decoration were most popular. Examples of that variation are works ofMikhail Eisenstein,
in Perpendicular Art Nouveau, geometrical ornaments were integrated into the vertical compositions of the façades. Several department stores were built in this style, and it is sometimes also referred to as "department store style" orWarenhausstil in German,
National Romantic Art Nouveau was inspired by local folk art, monumental volumes and the use of natural building materials.
Some laterNeo-Classical buildings also contained Art Nouveau details.
Crematorium (1908–1910), interior, with stylised fir tree design on ceiling. Thesymbolist murals by L'Epplattenier were added later.
Crematorium, with stylisedsapin or pine cone detail
Crematorium, with pine cone detail
A variation calledStyle Sapin ('Fir-tree Style') emerged inLa Chaux-de-Fonds in theCanton of Neuchâtel in Switzerland. The style was launched by the painter and artistCharles l’Eplattenier and was inspired especially by thesapin, 'fir tree', and other plants and wildlife of theJura Mountains. One of his major works was the crematorium in the town, which featured triangular tree forms, pine cones, and other natural themes from the region. The style also blended in the more geometric stylistic elements ofJugendstil andVienna Secession.[146]
Another notable building in the style is theVilla FalletLa Chaux-de-Fonds, a chalet designed and built in 1905 by a student of L'Eplattenier, the eighteen-year-oldLe Corbusier. The form of the house was a traditional Swisschalet, but the decoration of the façade included triangular trees and other natural features. Le Corbusier built two more chalets in the area, including the Villa Stotzer, in a more traditional chalet style.[147][146][148][149]
Tiffany Style and Louis Sullivan in the United States
In the United States, the firm ofLouis Comfort Tiffany played a central role in American Art Nouveau. Born in 1848, he studied at theNational Academy of Design in New York City, began working with glass at the age of 24, entered the family business started by his father, and in 1885 set up his own enterprise devoted to fine glass, and developed new techniques for its colouring. In 1893, he began making glass vases and bowls, again developing new techniques that allowed more original shapes and colouring, and began experimenting with decorative window glass. Layers of glass were printed, marbled and superimposed, giving an exceptional richness and variety of colour in 1895 his new works were featured in the Art Nouveau gallery of Siegfried Bing, giving him a new European clientele. After the death of his father in 1902, he took over the entire Tiffany enterprise, but still devoted much of his time to designing and manufacturing glass art objects. At the urging ofThomas Edison, he began to manufacture electric lamps with multicoloured glass shades in structures of bronze and iron, or decorated with mosaics, produced in numerous series and editions, each made with the care of a piece of jewellery. A team of designers and craftsmen worked on each product. The Tiffany lamp in particular became one of the icons of the Art Nouveau, but Tiffany's craftsmen designed and made extraordinary windows, vases, and other glass art. Tiffany's glass also had great success at the1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris; his stained glass window called theFlight of Souls won a gold medal.[150] The Columbian Exposition was an important venue for Tiffany; a chapel he designed was shown at the Pavilion of Art and Industry. The Tiffany Chapel, along with one of the windows of Tiffany's home in New York, are now on display at theCharles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art inWinter Park, Florida.
Another important figure in American Art Nouveau was the architectLouis Sullivan. Sullivan was a leading pioneer of American modern architecture. He was the founder of theChicago School, the architect of some of the first skyscrapers, and the teacher ofFrank Lloyd Wright. His most famous saying was "Form follows function." While the form of his buildings was shaped by their function, his decoration was an example of American Art Nouveau. At the 1893World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, most famous for the neoclassical architecture of its renownedWhite City, he designed a spectacular Art Nouveau entrance for the very functional Transportation Building.[151][152]
While the architecture of hisCarson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building (1899) (now theSullivan Center) was strikingly modern and functional, he surrounded the windows with stylised floral decoration. He invented equally original decoration for theNational Farmer's Bank of Owatonna, Minnestota (1907–1908) and the Merchants' National Bank in Grinell, Iowa. He invented a specifically American variety of Art Nouveau, declaring that decorative forms should oscillate, surge, mix and derive without end. He created works of great precision which sometimes combined Gothic with Art Nouveau themes.[153]
Also worth noting are theUhl brothers from Toledo, Ohio, who set new standards in metal furniture production with their designs for theToledo Metal Furniture Co.
Flooded with European immigrants, Argentina welcomed all artistic and architectural European styles, including Art Nouveau. There was an environment of huge investments and flexible rules for construction, which encouraged young architects from Europe to come and grow their portfolio to later go back to Europe. As a result of this, Argentina became the country outside of Europe with most art nouveau buildings.[154] Cities with the most notable Art Nouveau heritage in Argentina areBuenos Aires,Rosario andMar del Plata.[155]
Paris was a prototype for Buenos Aires with the construction of large boulevards and avenues in the 19th century.[154] The local style along with French influence was also following Italian Liberty as many architects (Virginio Colombo,Francisco Gianotti,Mario Palanti) were Italians. In works ofJulián García Núñez [es] Catalan influence can be noted as he completed his studies in Barcelona in 1900 as well as in the work of Eduardo Rodríguez Ortega.[154] The influence ofVienna Secession can be found at Paso y Viamonte building, Club Español, Regimiento de Granaderos a Caballo and the Savoy hotel.[154]
Some local features are the adaptation to the previously existent "chorizo house" format of buildings, which implied a relatively narrow façade for an actually deep building inside of the block, with multiple patios or holes for air and light; as well as the characteristic "cut corners" on every block that was a requirement by law in Buenos Aires since the end of the 1800s; material availability was also different than in Europe, and buildings will often be covered of a "simil piedra París" which was an imitation of the Parisian stone made by mixing cement with sand and different minerals.
The introduction of Art Nouveau inRosario is connected toFrancisco Roca Simó [es] who trained in Barcelona.[156] HisClub Español building [es] (1912) features one of the largest stained glass windows in Latin America produced (as well as tiling and ceramics) by the local firm Buxadera, Fornells y Cía.[157] The sculptor of the building is Diego Masana from Barcelona.[157]
As in Argentina, Art Nouveau in other countries was mostly influenced by foreign artists:
Spaniards were behind Art Nouveau projects inHavana, Cuba, they were even not qualified enough to be called architects.[160] Spaniards were not directly involved in works inPonce, Puerto Rico but were an inspiration and a subject of study for local architects in the development of local styles such asPonce Creole,[161]
Windows not aligned horizontally, while still looking harmonious – Castel Béranger
Depiction of the woman as a creature of the night, fused with the natural world – Breast ornament, byRené Lalique (1898–1900),Kunstgewerbemuseum Berlin
Decorative stylised lettering – Grave of the Caillat Family inPère Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, by Guimard (1899)[170]
Flat colours and visible outline, inspired by Japanese art –Jane Avril, byHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1899), multiple exemplars in different locations
Horseshoe arches, present in both windows and doors, inspired bymoon gates (a traditional architectural element inChinese gardens) – Window of Strada Jules Michelet no. 21 inBucharest, unknown architect (c. 1900)
Gesamtkunstwerk (literally 'total artwork'), which refers to everything being designed to fit together, from carpets to wallpaper, and from room compartmentation to light fixtures – Design for a house of an art lover, byCharles Rennie Mackintosh andMargaret Macdonald Mackintosh (1901)
Combinations of rectangular shapes, straight or almost straight lines, with sinuous organic shapes (like ovals that are asymmetric horizontally) - door handle of the House ofPaul Verdussen (Avenue Brugmann no. 211) in Brussels, byPaul Hamesse (1901)
Ethereal scenes (used especially in reliefs on buildings and objects, and in posters) – Façade ofRue Perrée no. 18 in Paris, byRaymond Barbaud andÉdouard Bauhain (1908)
Highly stylised plant motifs, nearly abstract – Balcony of theHôtel Guimard (Avenue Mozart no. 122) in Paris, by Guimard (1909)
Nymphs – Relief on the Fanny and Isac Popper House (Strada Sfinților no. 1), Bucharest, byAlfred Popper (1914)[171]
Early Art Nouveau, particularly in Belgium and France, was characterized by undulating, curving forms inspired by lilies, vines, flower stems and other natural forms, used in particular in the interiors ofVictor Horta and the decoration ofLouis Majorelle andÉmile Gallé.[172] It also drew upon patterns based on butterflies and dragonflies, borrowed from Japanese art, which were popular in Europe at the time.[172]
Early Art Nouveau also often featured more stylised forms expressing movement, such as thecoup de fouet or "whiplash" line, depicted in the cyclamen plants drawn by designerHermann Obrist in 1894. A description published inPan magazine ofHermann Obrist's wall hangingCyclamen (1894), compared it to the "sudden violent curves generated by the crack of a whip,"[173] The term "whiplash", though it was originally used to ridicule the style, is frequently applied to the characteristic curves employed by Art Nouveau artists.[173] Such decorative undulating and flowing lines in a syncopated rhythm and asymmetrical shape, are often found in the architecture, painting, sculpture, and other forms of Art Nouveau design.[173]
Other floral forms were popular, inspired by lilies, wisteria and other flowers, particularly in the lamps ofLouis Comfort Tiffany and the glass objects made by the artists of theSchool of Nancy andÉmile Gallé. Other curving and undulating forms borrowed from nature included butterflies, peacocks, swans, and water lilies. Many designs depicted women's hair intertwined with stems of lilies, irises and other flowers.[174] Stylised floral forms were particularly used byVictor Horta in carpets, balustrades, windows, and furniture. They were also used extensively byHector Guimard for balustrades, and, most famously, for the lamps and railings at the entrances of theParis Metro. Guimard explained: "That which must be avoided in everything that is continuous is the parallel and symmetry. Nature is the greatest builder and nature makes nothing that is parallel and nothing that is symmetrical."[175]
Earlier Art Nouveau furniture, such as that made byLouis Majorelle andHenry van de Velde, was characterized by the use of exotic and expensive materials, including mahogany with inlays of precious woods and trim, and curving forms without right angles. It gave a sensation of lightness.
In the second phase of Art Nouveau, following 1900, the decoration became purer and the lines were more stylised. The curving lines and forms evolved into polygons and then into cubes and other geometric forms. These geometric forms were used with particular effect in the architecture and furniture ofJoseph Maria Olbrich,Otto Wagner,Koloman Moser andJosef Hoffmann, especially theStoclet Palace in Brussels, which announced the arrival ofArt Deco andmodernism.[89][90][91]
Another characteristic of Art Nouveau architecture was the use of light, by opening up of interior spaces, by the removal of walls, and the extensive use of skylights to bring a maximum amount of light into the interior.Victor Horta's residence-studio and other houses built by him had extensive skylights, supported on curving iron frames. In theHotel Tassel he removed the traditional walls around the stairway, so that the stairs became a central element of the interior design.
Relationship with contemporary styles and movements
Mix of Art Nouveau andGothic Revival – Rue Gustave-Lemaire no. 51 inDunkirk, France, with pointed arched-dormer windows and balconyloggia, unknown architect, decorated with sculptures byMaurice Ringot (1903–1910)[176]
Art Nouveau did not eschew the use of machines, as the Arts and Crafts movement did. For sculpture, the principal materials employed were glass and wrought iron, resulting in sculptural qualities even in architecture. Ceramics were also employed in creating editions of sculptures by artists such asAuguste Rodin.[178] though his sculpture is not considered Art Nouveau.
Art Nouveau architecture made use of manytechnological innovations of the late 19th century, especially the use of exposed iron and large, irregularly shaped pieces of glass for architecture.
Art Nouveau tendencies were also absorbed into local styles. In Denmark, for example, it was one aspect ofSkønvirke ('Aesthetic work'), which itself more closely relates to theArts and Crafts style.[179][180] Likewise, artists adopted many of the floral and organic motifs of Art Nouveau into theMłoda Polska ('Young Poland') style in Poland.[181]Młoda Polska, however, was also inclusive of other artistic styles and encompassed a broader approach to art, literature, and lifestyle.[182]
Architecturally, Art Nouveau has affinities with styles that, although modern, exist outside themodernist tradition established by architects likeWalter Gropius andLe Corbusier. It is particularly closely related toExpressionist architecture, which shares its preference for organic shapes, but grew out of an intellectual dissatisfaction with Art Nouveau's approach to ornamentation. As opposed to Art Nouveau's focus on plants and vegetal motifs, Expressionism takes inspiration from things like caves, mountains, lightning, crystal, and rock formations.[183] Another style conceived as a reaction to Art Nouveau wasArt Deco, which rejected organic surfaces altogether in preference for a rectilinear style derived from the contemporary artistic avant-garde.
The graphic arts flourished in the Art Nouveau period, thanks to new technologies of printing, particularly colourlithography, which allowed the mass production of colour posters. Art was no longer confined to galleries, museums and salons; it could be found on Paris walls, and in illustrated art magazines, which circulated throughout Europe and to the United States. The most popular theme of Art Nouveau posters was women; women symbolizing glamour, modernity and beauty, often surrounded by flowers.
In Britain, the leading graphic artist in the Art Nouveau style wasAubrey Beardsley (1872–1898). He began with engraved book illustrations forLe Morte d'Arthur, then black and white illustrations forSalome byOscar Wilde (1893), which brought him fame. In the same year, he began engraving illustrations and posters for the art magazineThe Studio, which helped publicize European artists such asFernand Khnopff in Britain. The curving lines and intricate floral patterns attracted as much attention as the text.[184]
The Swiss-French artistEugène Grasset (1845–1917) was one of the first creators of French Art Nouveau posters. He helped decorate the famous cabaretLe Chat noir in 1885 and made his first posters for theFêtes de Paris. He made a celebrated poster ofSarah Bernhardt in 1890, and a wide variety of book illustrations. The artist-designersJules Chéret,Georges de Feure and the painterHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec all made posters for Paris theaters, cafés, dance halls cabarets. TheCzech artistAlphonse Mucha (1860–1939) arrived in Paris in 1888, and in 1895 made a poster for actress Sarah Bernhardt in the playGismonda byVictorien Sardou. The success of this poster led to a contract to produce posters for six more plays by Bernhardt. Over the next four years, he also designed sets, costumes, and even jewellery for the actress.[185][186] Based on the success of his theater posters, Mucha made posters for a variety of products, ranging from cigarettes and soap to beer biscuits, all featuring an idealized female figure with an hourglass figure. He went on to design products, from jewellery to biscuit boxes, in his distinctive style.[187]
In Vienna, the most prolific designer of graphics and posters wasKoloman Moser (1868–1918), who actively participated in the Secession movement withGustav Klimt andJosef Hoffmann, and made illustrations and covers for the magazine of the movement,Ver Sacrum, as well as paintings, furniture and decoration.[188]
Painting was another domain of Art Nouveau, though most painters associated with Art Nouveau are primarily described as members of other movements, particularlyPost-Impressionism andsymbolism.Alphonse Mucha was famous for his Art Nouveau posters, which frustrated him. According to his son and biographer,Jiří Mucha, he did not think much of Art Nouveau. "What is it,Art Nouveau? he asked. "... Art can never be new."[189] He took the greatest pride in his work as a history painter. His Art Nouveau-inspired paintingSlava is a portrait of the daughter of his patron inSlavic costume, which was modelled after his theatrical posters.[189]
The painters most closely associated with Art Nouveau wereLes Nabis, post-impressionist artists who were active in Paris from 1888 until 1900. One of their stated goals was to break down the barrier between the fine arts and the decorative arts. They painted not only canvases, but also decorative screens and panels. Many of their works were influenced by the aesthetics of Japanese prints. The members includedPierre Bonnard,Maurice Denis,Paul Ranson,Édouard Vuillard,Ker-Xavier Roussel,Félix Vallotton, andPaul Sérusier.[190]
The Austrian painter Gustav Klimt was an exponent of Art Nouveau painting, and more specifically a representative of the Modernist movement of the Viennese Secession. Klimt painted canvases and murals in an ornate personal style, which he also expressed through handicrafts, such as those found in the Viennese Secession Gallery. Klimt found one of his most recurring sources of inspiration in the female nude. His works are sensual, with a naturalistic, individual, organic style, inspired by nature following the decorative style of Gaudí.
The Catalan modernist painters (Ramón Casas, Santiago Rusiñol, Aleix Clapés, Joaquim Sunyer, Hermenegildo Anglada Camarasa, Juan Brull, Ricard Canals, Javier Gosé, Josep Maria Sert, Miguel Utrillo, etc.), closely connected with the avant-garde in Paris, and hugely influenced by Antoni Gaudí, had in the Els Quatre Gats tavern their meeting place. Pablo Picasso came out of the group.
Disciples of Anglada Camarasa were the Argentines Gregorio López Naguil, Tito Cittadini and Raúl Mazza who were responsible for carrying art nouveau painting to South America
In Belgium,Fernand Khnopff worked in both painting and graphic design. Wall murals by Gustav Klimt were integrated into decorative scheme ofJosef Hoffmann for theStoclet Palace (1905–1911). The Klimt mural for the dining room at the Stoclet Palace is considered a masterpiece of late Art Nouveau.
One subject did appear both in traditional painting and Art Nouveau; the American dancerLoie Fuller, was portrayed by French and Austrian painters and poster artists.[44]
One particular style that became popular in the Art Nouveau period, especially in Brussels, wassgraffito, a technique invented in the Renaissance of applying layers of tinted plaster to make murals on the façades of houses. This was used in particular by Belgian architectPaul Hankar for the houses he built for two artist friends, Paul Cauchie and Albert Ciamberlani.
Glass art was a medium in which Art Nouveau found new and varied ways of expression. Intense amount of experimentation went on, particularly in France, to find new effects of transparency and opacity: in engraving win cameo, double layers, and acid engraving, a technique that permitted production in series. The city ofNancy became an important centre for the French glass industry, and the workshops ofÉmile Gallé and theDaum studio, led byAuguste and Antonin Daum, were located there. They worked with many notable designers, includingErnest Bussière [fr],Henri Bergé (illustrateur) [fr], andAmalric Walter. They developed a new method of incrusting glass by pressing fragments of different coloured glass into the unfinished piece. They often collaborated with the furniture designerLouis Majorelle, whose home and workshops were in Nancy. Another feature of Art Nouveau was the use of stained glass windows with that style of floral themes in residential salons, particularly in the Art Nouveau houses in Nancy. Many were the work ofJacques Grüber, who made windows for theVilla Majorelle and other houses.[192]
In Belgium, the leading firm was the glass factory ofVal Saint Lambert, which created vases in organic and floral forms, many of them designed byPhilippe Wolfers. Wolfers was noted particularly for creating works ofsymbolist glass, often with metal decoration attached. InBohemia, then a region of theAustro-Hungarian Empire noted for crystal manufacture, the companiesJ. & L. Lobmeyr andJoh. Loetz Witwe also experimented with new colouring techniques, producing more vivid and richer colours. In Germany, experimentation was led by Karl Köpping, who used blown glass to create extremely delicate glasses in the form of flowers; so delicate that few survive today.[193]
In Vienna, the glass designs of the Secession movement were much more geometrical than those of France or Belgium;Otto Prutscher was the most rigorous glass designer of the movement.[193] In Britain, a number of floral stained glass designs were created byMargaret Macdonald Mackintosh for the architectural display calledThe House of an Art Lover.
In the United States,Louis Comfort Tiffany and his designers became particularly famous for their lamps, whose glass shades used common floral themes intricately pieced together. Tiffany lamps gained popularity after theWorld's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, where Tiffany displayed his lamps in a Byzantine-like chapel. Tiffany experimented extensively with the processes of colouring glass, patenting in 1894 the processFavrile glass, which used metallic oxides to colour the interior of the molten glass, giving it an iridescent effect. His workshops produced several different series of theTiffany lamp in different floral designs, along with stained glass windows, screens, vases and a range of decorative objects. His works were first imported to Germany, then to France bySiegfried Bing, and then became one of the decorative sensations of the 1900 Exposition. An American rival to Tiffany,Steuben Glass, was founded in 1903 inCorning, N.Y., byFrederick Carder, who, like Tiffany, used the Fevrile process to create surfaces with iridescent colours. Another notable American glass artist wasJohn La Farge, who created intricate and colourful stained glass windows on both religious and purely decorative themes.[193]
Bat goblet byHenri Husson made of embossed and hammered copper, gold and silver applications (c. 1909)
Door detail of Hauptstraße no. 11 inBerlin (unknown date)
The 19th-century architectural theoristViollet-le-Duc had advocated showing, rather than concealing the iron frameworks of modern buildings, but Art Nouveau architectsVictor Horta andHector Guimard went a step further: they added iron decoration in curves inspired by floral and vegetal forms both in the interiors and exteriors of their buildings. They took the form of stairway railings in the interior, light fixtures, and other details in the interior, and balconies and other ornaments on the exterior. These became some of the most distinctive features of Art Nouveau architecture. The use of metal decoration in vegetal forms soon also appeared in silverware, lamps, and other decorative items.[194]
In the United States, the designerGeorge Grant Elmslie made extremely intricate cast iron designs for the balustrades and other interior decoration of the buildings of Chicago architectLouis Sullivan.
While French and American designers used floral and vegetal forms,Joseph Maria Olbrich and the other Secession artists designed teapots and other metal objects in a more geometric and sober style.[195]
Art Nouveau jewellery's characteristics include subtle curves and lines. Its design often features natural objects including flowers, animals or birds. The female body is also popular often appearing oncameos. It frequently included long necklaces made of pearls or sterling-silver chains punctuated by glass beads or ending in a silver or gold pendant, itself often designed as an ornament to hold a single, faceted jewel ofamethyst,peridot, orcitrine.[196]
Art Nouveau jewellery is distinguished by its extensive use of detailed, symbolic motifs that embody the movement's deep connection to nature and mythology. Predominant motifs include the ethereal forms of dragonflies and peacocks, which symbolise transformation and beauty, and the detailed depictions of plants and flowers, highlighting nature's cyclicality and growth. Intricately designed insects like butterflies and scarabs, often rendered with meticulous enamelling, add a layer of mysticism, symbolising rebirth and protection. This style also frequently featured sinuous figures of women, suggesting sensuality and the connection to the earth. More ominous figures such as snakes and mythical creatures like Medusas and chimeras were used to evoke the darker aspects of the natural and mythical worlds. The use of these motifs was not merely for embellishment; each was imbued with meanings, reflecting Art Nouveau's philosophy of integrating art, nature, and spiritual symbolism.[197]
The Art Nouveau period brought a notable stylistic revolution to the jewellery industry, led largely by the major firms in Paris. For the previous two centuries, the emphasis in fine jewellery had been creating dramatic settings for diamonds. During the reign of Art Nouveau, diamonds usually played a supporting role. Jewellers experimented with a wide variety of other stones, includingagate,garnet,opal,moonstone,aquamarine and other semi-precious stones, and with a wide variety of new techniques, among othersenamelling, and new materials, includinghorn, moulded glass, andivory. These materials allowed them to create organic forms and intricate details, highlighting the era's departure from traditional jewellery design towards more artistic and expressive creations. Techniques like plique-à-jour enamelling were employed to achieve translucent effects akin to stained glass, adding depth and luminosity to their pieces.[198]
Early notable Paris jewellers in the Art Nouveau style includedLouis Aucoc, whose family jewellery firm dated to 1821. The most famous designer of the Art Nouveau period,René Lalique, served his apprenticeship in the Aucoc studio from 1874 to 1876. Lalique became a central figure of Art Nouveau jewellery and glass, using nature, fromdragonflies to grasses, as his models. Artists from outside of the traditional world of jewellery, such asPaul Follot, best known as a furniture designer, experimented with jewellery designs. Other notable French Art Nouveau jewellery designers includedJules Brateau and Georges Henry. In the United States, the most famous designer wasLouis Comfort Tiffany, whose work was shown at the shop ofSiegfried Bing and also at the 1900 Paris Exposition. Siegfried Bing's Paris gallery,Maison de l'Art Nouveau, played a pivotal role in promoting Art Nouveau jewellery. By showcasing works from avant-garde jewellers like René Lalique,Henri Vever, andEdward Colonna, Bing elevated jewellery to the status of fine art and fostered international appreciation for the style.[198]
In Britain, the most prominent figure was the Liberty & Co. & Cymric designerArchibald Knox, who made a variety of Art Nouveau pieces, including silver belt buckles.C. R. Ashbee designed pendants in the shapes of peacocks. The versatileGlasgow designerCharles Rennie Mackintosh also made jewellery, using traditional Celtic symbols. In Germany, the centre forJugendstil jewellery was the city ofPforzheim, where most of the German firms, includingTheodor Fahrner, were located. They quickly produced works to meet the demand for the new style.[196]
Relief on the façade of the Fanny and Isac Popper House (Strada Sfinților no. 1) inBucharest, designed byAlfred Popper (1914)[171]
Art Nouveau architecture was a reaction against the eclectic styles that dominated European architecture in the second half of the 19th century. It was expressed through decoration: eitherornamental (based on flowers and plants, e.g. thistles,[199] irises,[200] cyclamens, orchids, water lilies etc.) or sculptural (see therespective section below). While faces of people (ormascarons) are referred to ornament, the use of people in different forms of sculpture (statues and reliefs: see therespective section below) was also common in some forms of Art Nouveau. BeforeVienna Secession, Jugendstil and the various forms of theNational romantic style façades were asymmetrical, and often decorated with polychrome ceramic tiles. The decoration usually suggested movement; there was no distinction between the structure and the ornament.[201] A curling or"whiplash" motif, based on the forms of plants and flowers, was widely used in the early Art Nouveau, but decoration became more abstract and symmetrical inVienna Secession and other later versions of the style, as in theStoclet Palace in Brussels (1905–1911).[202]
The style first appeared in Brussels'Hankar House byPaul Hankar (1893) andHôtel Tassel (1892–93) ofVictor Horta. The Hôtel Tassel was visited byHector Guimard, who used the same style in his first major work, theCastel Béranger (1897–98). Horta and Guimard also designed the furniture and the interior decoration, down to the doorknobs and carpeting. In 1899, based on the fame of the Castel Béranger, Guimard received a commission to design theentrances of the stations of the newParis Métro, which opened in 1900. Though few of the originals survived, these became the symbol of the Art Nouveau movement in Paris.
In Paris, the architectural style was also a reaction to the strict regulations imposed on building façades byGeorges-Eugène Haussmann, the prefect of Paris underNapoleon III.Bow windows were finally allowed in 1903, and Art Nouveau architects went to the opposite extreme, most notably in the houses ofJules Lavirotte, which were essentially large works of sculpture, completely covered with decoration. An important neighbourhood of Art Nouveau houses appeared in the French city ofNancy, around theVilla Majorelle (1901–02), the residence of the furniture designerLouis Majorelle. It was designed byHenri Sauvage as a showcase for Majorelle's furniture designs.[201]
Adjustable armchair Model 670Sitting Machine designed byJosef Hoffmann (1904–1906)
French Art Nouveau. Metal stool made inLyon (1910)
TOLEDO UHL steel chair "SODA FOUNTAIN" from 1910,Ohio
Furniture design in the Art Nouveau period was closely associated with the architecture of the buildings; the architects often designed the furniture, carpets, light fixtures, doorknobs, and other decorative details. The furniture was often complex and expensive; a fine finish, usually polished or varnished, was regarded as essential, and continental designs were usually very complex, with curving shapes that were expensive to make. It also had the drawback that the owner of the home could not change the furniture or add pieces in a different style without disrupting the entire effect of the room. For this reason, when Art Nouveau architecture went out of style, the style of furniture also largely disappeared.
In France, the centre for furniture design and manufacture was inNancy, where two major designers,Émile Gallé andLouis Majorelle had their studios and workshops, and where theAlliance des industries d'art (later called the School of Nancy) had been founded in 1901. Both designers based on their structure and ornamentation on forms taken from nature, including flowers and insects, such as the dragonfly, a popular motif in Art Nouveau design. Gallé was particularly known for his use ofmarquetry in relief, in the form of landscapes or poetic themes. Majorelle was known for his use of exotic and expensive woods, and for attaching bronze sculpted in vegetal themes to his pieces of furniture. Both designers used machines for the first phases of manufacture, but all the pieces were finished by hand. Other notable furniture designers of the Nancy School includedEugène Vallin andÉmile André; both were architects by training, and both designed furniture that resembled the furniture from Belgian designers such as Horta and Van de Velde, which had less decoration and followed more closely the curving plants and flowers.
Other notable French designers includedHenri Bellery-Desfontaines, who took his inspiration from the neo-Gothic styles ofViollet-le-Duc; andGeorges de Feure,Eugène Gaillard, andÉdouard Colonna, who worked together with art dealerSiegfried Bing to revitalize the French furniture industry with new themes. Their work was known for "abstract naturalism", its unity of straight and curved lines, and itsrococo influence. The furniture of de Feure at the Bing pavilion won a gold medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition. The most unusual and picturesque French designer wasFrançois-Rupert Carabin, a sculptor by training, whose furniture featured sculpted nude female forms and symbolic animals, particularly cats, who combined Art Nouveau elements withSymbolism. Other influential Paris furniture designers wereCharles Plumet, andAlexandre Charpentier.[216] In many ways the old vocabulary and techniques of classic French 18th-centuryRococo furniture were re-interpreted in a new style.[10]
In Belgium, the pioneer architects of theArt Nouveau movement,Victor Horta andHenry van de Velde, designed furniture for their houses, using vigorous curving lines and a minimum of decoration. The Belgian designerGustave Serrurier-Bovy added more decoration, applying brass strips in curving forms. In the Netherlands, where the style was calledNieuwe Kunst or New Art, H. P. Berlag, Lion Cachet and Theodor Nieuwenhuis followed a different course, that of the EnglishArts and Crafts movement, with more geometric rational forms.
In Britain, the furniture ofCharles Rennie Mackintosh was purely Arts and Crafts, austere and geometrical, with long straight lines and right angles and a minimum of decoration.[217] Continental designs were much more elaborate, often using curved shapes both in the basic shapes of the piece, and in applied decorative motifs. In Germany, the furniture ofPeter Behrens and theJugendstil was largely rationalist, with geometric straight lines and some decoration attached to the surface. Their goal was exactly the opposite of French Art Nouveau; simplicity of structure and simplicity of materials, for furniture that could be inexpensive and easily mass-manufactured. The same was true for the furniture of designers of theWiener Werkstätte in Vienna, led byOtto Wagner,Josef Hoffmann, Josef Maria Olbrich andKoloman Moser. The furniture was geometric and had a minimum of decoration, though in style it often followed national historic precedent, particularly theBiedemeier style.[218]
Italian and Spanish furniture design went off in their own direction.Carlo Bugatti in Italy designed the extraordinary Snail Chair, wood covered with painted parchment and copper, for the Turin International Exposition of 1902. In Spain, following the lead ofAntoni Gaudí and theModernismo movement, the furniture designer Gaspar Homar designed works that were inspired by natural forms with touches of Catalan historic styles.[136]
In the United States, furniture design was more often inspired by the Arts and Crafts movement, or by historic American models, than by the Art Nouveau. One designer who did introduce Art Nouveau themes wasCharles Rohlfs inBuffalo, N.Y., whose designs for American white oak furniture were influenced by motifs ofCeltic art andGothic art, with touches of Art Nouveau in the metal trim applied to the pieces.[136]
Faience or earthenware vase with two feet, with mountain night scene on the back and a floral daylight scene with butterfly on the front, by Gallé (1884–85),Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum, New York City
Ceramic art, includingfaience, was another flourishing domain for Art Nouveau artists, in the English-speaking countries falling under the widerart pottery movement. The last part of the 19th century saw many technological innovations in the manufacture of ceramics, particularly the development of high temperature (grand feu) ceramics with crystallised and matte glazes. At the same time, several lost techniques, such assang de boeuf glaze, were rediscovered. Art Nouveau ceramics were also influenced by traditional and modern Japanese and Chinese ceramics, whose vegetal and floral motifs fitted well with the Art Nouveau style. In France, artists also rediscovered the traditionalstoneware (grés) methods and reinvented them with new motifs.[223]
Émile Gallé, in Nancy, created earthenware works in natural earth colors with naturalistic themes of plants and insects. Ceramics also found an important new use in architecture: Art Nouveau architects,Jules Lavirotte andHector Guimard among them, began to decorate the façades of buildings witharchitectural ceramics, many of them made by the firm ofAlexandre Bigot, giving them a distinct Art Nouveau sculptural look.[223]
One of the pioneer French Art Nouveau ceramists wasErnest Chaplet, whose career in ceramics spanned thirty years. He began producing stoneware influenced by Japanese and Chinese prototypes. Beginning in 1886, he worked with painterPaul Gauguin on stoneware designs with applied figures, multiple handles, painted and partially glazed, and collaborated with sculptorsFélix Bracquemond,Jules Dalou andAuguste Rodin. His works were acclaimed at the 1900 Exposition.
In France, Art Nouveau ceramics sometimes crossed the line into sculpture. The porcelain figurineDancer with a Scarf byAgathon Léonard, made for theManufacture nationale de Sèvres, won recognition in both categories at the 1900 Paris Exposition.
TheZsolnay factory inPécs, Hungary, was founded byMiklós Zsolnay (1800–1880) in 1853 and led by his son,Vilmos Zsolnay (1828–1900) with chief designerTádé Sikorski (1852–1940) to produce stoneware and other ceramics. In 1893, Zsolnay introduced porcelain pieces made ofeosin. He led the factory to worldwide recognition by demonstrating its innovative products at world fairs and international exhibitions, including the1873 World Fair in Vienna, then at the1878 World Fair in Paris, where Zsolnay received aGrand Prix. Frost-resisting Zsolnay building decorations were used in numerous buildings, specifically during the Art Nouveau movement.[225]
Ceramic tiles were also a distinctive feature of PortugueseArte Nova that continued the longazulejo tradition of the country.
Textiles and wallpapers were an important vehicle of Art Nouveau from the beginning of the style, and an essential element of Art Nouveau interior design. In Britain, the textile designs ofWilliam Morris had helped launch theArts and Crafts movement and then Art Nouveau. Many designs were created for theLiberty department store in London, which popularized the style throughout Europe. One such designer was theSilver Studio, which provided colourful stylised floral patterns. Other distinctive designs came fromGlasgow School, andMargaret Macdonald Mackintosh. The Glasgow school introduced several distinctive motifs, including stylised eggs, geometric forms and the "Rose of Glasgow".
In France, a major contribution was made by designerEugène Grasset who in 1896 publishedLa Plante et ses applications ornamentales, suggesting Art Nouveau designs based on different flowers and plants. Many patterns were designed for and produced by for the major French textile manufacturers in Mulhouse, Lille and Lyon, by German and Belgian workshops. The German designerHermann Obrist specialized in floral patterns, particularly the cyclamen and the "whiplash" style based on flower stems, which became a major motif of the style. The BelgianHenry van de Velde presented a textile work,La Veillée d'Anges, at the SalonLa Libre Esthéthique in Brussels, inspired by the symbolism ofPaul Gauguin and of theNabis. In the Netherlands, textiles were often inspired bybatik patterns from the Dutch colonies in theEast Indies. Folk art also inspired the creation of tapestries, carpets, embroidery and textiles in Central Europe and Scandinavia, in the work ofGerhard Munthe andFrida Hansen in Norway. TheFive Swans design ofOtto Eckmann appeared in more than one hundred different versions. The Hungarian designerJános Vaszary combined Art Nouveau elements with folkloric themes.[227]
There are 4 types of museums featuring Art Nouveau heritage:
Broad-scope museums (not specifically dedicated to Art Nouveau but with a large collection of items in this style).Art Nouveau monuments are italicised;
House-museums of Art Nouveau artists (all but Alphonse Mucha museum are Art Nouveau monuments);
Museums dedicated to local Art Nouveau movements (all are Art Nouveau monuments);
Other Art Nouveau buildings with museum status or featuring a museum inside (not dedicated to local Art Nouveau movements/specific artists).
Country
Broad-scope museums
House-museums of Art Nouveau artists
Museums dedicated to local Art Nouveau movements
Other Art Nouveau buildings with museum status or featuring a museum inside
There are many other Art Nouveau buildings and structures that do not have museum status but can be officially visited for a fee or unofficially for free (e.g. railway stations, churches, cafes, restaurants, pubs, hotels, stores, offices, libraries, cemeteries, fountains as well as numerous apartment buildings that are still inhabited).
Criticized for "its primitive extravagances", Art Nouveau started to fade away after 1911.[231] In histories of European architecture in the 20th century, from the 1930s to the 1950s, influential historians, likeNikolaus Pevsner,Sigfried Giedion andHenry-Russell Hitchcock, did not take Art Nouveau into consideration. This left the first versions of Pevsner'sThe Genius of European Architecture without a mention ofHector Guimard orAntoni Gaudí. The first major works dealing with Art Nouveau were published at the end of the 1950s, withJohnny Watser.
Via Statuto no. 12 (Art Deco) inMilan, Italy, byGiovanni Greppi (1919), similar to Charles Rennie Mackintosh's buildings
Art Deco door with spirals and sinuous lines, of the Mihai Zisman House (Calea Călărașilor no. 44) in Bucharest, by Soru (1920)
Art DecoRolls Royce radiator figurine, similar to Art Nouveau ethereal figures of women in graceful wavy garments, designed byCharles Robinson Sykes (1920s), in the Antique and Classic Car Museum,Torre Loizaga,Galdames, Spain
Art Deco museum design, similar to Josef Hoffmann's Secessionist buildings, part of a series of sketches known asUne cité moderne, byRobert Mallet-Stevens (1922)
Art Deco balconies with sinuous bases ofAvenue Richerand no. 1 in Paris, unknown architect (c. 1930)
Art Nouveau was one of the factors that led toArt Deco, a style created as a collective effort of multiple French designers to create a new modern style around 1910. This is because Art Nouveau broke the supremacy of 19th-centuryrevivalism andeclecticism, opposing academic conventions. Through its various manifestations, it invented new ornamental systems, no longer dependent on historical formulae, through curvy plant forms in most of the world, geometric decoration inAustria-Hungary and the UK, and reinterpretations of national tradition in the countries ofNorthern,Central andEastern Europe. The idea of creating a new style, with new ornaments and shapes, was a significant contribution that Art Nouveau brought to the invention of Art Deco. Another aspect taken from Art Nouveau is the emphasis put on domestic luxury.
Some of the fine details and sinuous lines of Art Nouveau are also found in Art Deco architecture and design of the 1920s, but slightly simplified. Similarly, the flat colours and visible outlines popularized by Art Nouveau posters are very often used in Art Deco illustration. Compared to many Art Nouveau designs, where the vegetal motifs seem to grow and morph on the object or architectural ornament, most Art Deco works have a clear compositional structure, similar toNeoclassicism.
Aside from ideas taken from Franco-Belgian Art Nouveau, influence came also from the geometric motifs and volumes found in the UK and Vienna. The flowers, spirals and squares found here are very similar to the ones found in Art Deco.Charles Rennie Mackintosh even anticipated Art Deco forms in his later creations. One of theSecessionist works that best anticipates the style is theStoclet Palace inBrussels, with itsziggurat-shaped setbacks, the vertical slit of the staircase window, and the overall simplicity and modest ornamentation.[237]
During the 1960s,postmodernism was born. This was and is a movement that questionsmodernism (thestatus quo afterWorld War II), and promoted the inclusion and reinterpretation of elements of historic styles in new designs. Although several international exhibitions on Art Nouveau happened in the 1950s, a successful revival appeared in the 1960s, and especially in the 1970s with the rise of postmodernism. Aside from exhibitions, this revival might be connected with the "flower power" generation that set the tone at the time recognized its own life ideals in the floral ornament and the erotically "emancipated" art themes of the years around 1900.
Art Nouveau was also one of the main sources of inspiration for manyposters ofpsychedelic rock from the same period. Leading proponents of the 1960s psychedelic art movement wereSan Francisco poster artists such asRick Griffin,Victor Moscoso,Bonnie MacLean,Stanley Mouse,Alton Kelley, andWes Wilson. Compared to the earthy colours that characterize Art Nouveau, these posters had highly saturated colours put in contrast, and also highly stylised text, sometimes hard to read. This style flourished from about 1966 to 1972.
Gustav Klimt's iconic paintings are found today on many kitschy souvenirs: mugs, plates, napkins, key chains, and so on.The Kiss has been printed on countless sizes and materials. In a similar situation areAlphonse Mucha's posters.
One of the artists who found in Art Nouveau a major source of inspiration was the Austrian painter and architectFriedensreich Hundertwasser. He took inspiration from multiple sources, includingEgon Schiele,Baroque andPersian miniature, and the curvy ornamentation of Art Nouveau.[239]
^Lingenheim, Claire.Art nouveau and Industrie(PDF) (in French). Accadémie Strasbourg.Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved20 January 2022.Viollet le Duc is the spokesman a rationalist mouvement where architecture becomes a true science, in which form stems from function.
^Froissart-Pezone, Rossella (2005).L'Art dans tout. Paris: CNRS éditions.
^Bressani, Martin (2014).Viollet le Duc, materials and building techniques (in French). Paris: Editions du Patrimoine.Construction for an architect means using materials for their quality and their own nature
^Pauliac, Laurence (2005).Viollet-le-Duc et la restauration de la polychromie (in French). Montréal: Université de Montréal.It is fascinating to see how the style of his mural paintings at Notre Dame are precursors of Art Nouveau
^Martin Eidelberg and Suzanne Henrion-Giele, "Horta and Bing: An Unwritten Episode of L'Art Nouveau",The Burlington Magazine, vol. 119, Special Issue Devoted to European Art Since 1890 (Nov. 1977), pp. 747–752.
^Henry R. Hope, review of H. Lenning,The Art Nouveau,The Art Bulletin, vol. 34 (June 1952), 168–171 (esp. 168–169): In 1952, Discussing the state of Art Nouveau, the author noted that Art Nouveau was not yet an acceptable study for serious art history or a subject suitable for major museum exhibitions and their respective catalogs. He predicted an impending change
^James Grady, "Special Bibliographical Supplement: A Bibliography of the Art Nouveau", inThe Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 14 (May 1955), pp. 18–27.
^von Bonsdorff, Axel (1926). "Experiences of the sanocrysin treatment at Nummela Sanatorium in Finland".Acta Medica Scandinavica.64:123–130.doi:10.1111/j.0954-6820.1926.tb14017.x.
^"Maison".pop.culture.gouv.fr. Retrieved8 September 2023.
^Constantin, Paul (1972).Arta 1900 în România (in Romanian). Editura Meridiane. p. 93.
^"Rodin, a Japanese Dream"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved30 June 2010. Edmond Lachenal produced editions of Rodin's sculptures
^Jennifer Opie, "A Dish by Thorvald Bindesbøll", inThe Burlington Magazine, vol. 132 (May 1990), p. 356.
^Claire Selkurt, "New Classicism: Design of the 1920s in Denmark", inThe Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, vol. 4 (Spring, 1987), pp. 16–29 (esp. 18 n. 4).
^Danuta A. Boczar, "The Polish Poster", inArt Journal, vol. 44 (Spring, 1984), pp. 16–27 (esp. 16).
^Danuta Batorska, "Zofia Stryjeńska: Princess of Polish Painting", inWoman's Art Journal, vol. 19 (Autumn, 1998–Winter, 1999), pp. 24–29 (esp. 24–25).
^Pehnt, Wolfgang (1973).Expressionist Architecture, Thames and Hudson,ISBN0-500-34058-7, p.19. Taut's mention of "earth-crust architecture" and what Poelzig deemed, "important to remodel the earth's surface sculpturally".
^van Lemmen, Hans (2013).5000 Years of Tiles. The British Museum Press. p. 223.ISBN978-0-7141-5099-4.
^"Immeuble".pop.culture.gouv.fr. Retrieved8 September 2023.
^"Magasin".pop.culture.gouv.fr. Retrieved16 January 2024.
^Mariana Celac, Octavian Carabela and Marius Marcu-Lapadat (2017).Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide. Ordinul Arhitecților din România. p. 85.ISBN978-973-0-23884-6.
^Criticos, Mihaela (2009).Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in English and Romanian). SIMETRIA. p. 79.ISBN978-973-1872-03-2.
^Criticos, Mihaela (2009).Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in English and Romanian). SIMETRIA. p. 80.ISBN978-973-1872-03-2.
^Criticos, Mihaela (2009).Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in English and Romanian). SIMETRIA. p. 81.ISBN978-973-1872-03-2.
^Wilhide, Elizabeth (2022).Design - The Whole Story. Thames & Hudson. p. 105.ISBN978-0-500-29687-5.
^Criticos, Mihaela (2009).Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in English and Romanian). SIMETRIA. pp. 79–80.ISBN978-973-1872-03-2.
Bouillon, Jean-Paul (1985).Journal de l'Art Nouveau. Paris: Skira.ISBN2605000699.
Celac, Mariana; Carabela, Octavian; Marcu-Lapadat, Marius (2017).Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide. Order of Architects of Romania.ISBN9789730238846.
Culot, Maurice; Pirlot, Ann-Marie (2005).Bruxelles Art Nouveau (in French). Brussels: Archives d'Architecture Moderne.ISBN2-87143-126-4.
Fahr-Becker, Gabriele (2015).L'Art Nouveau (in French). H.F. Ullmann.ISBN9783848008575.
Heller, Steven, and Seymour Chwast,Graphic Style from Victorian to Digital, new ed. New York:Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2001. pp. 53–57.
Huyges, René,L'Art et le monde moderne, Volume 1, Librarie Larousse, Paris, 1970
Journel, Guillemette Morel (2015).Le Corbusier- Construire la Vie Moderne (in French). Editions du Patrimoine: Centre des Monument Nationaux.ISBN978-2-7577-0419-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
Lahor, Jean (2007) [1901].L'Art nouveau (in French). Baseline Co. Ltd.ISBN9781859956670.
Ormiston, Rosalind; Robinson, Michael (2013).Art Nouveau – Posters, Illustration and Fine Art. Flame Tree Publishing.ISBN9781847862808.
Plum, Gilles (2014).Paris architectures de la Belle Époque (in French). Éditions Parigramme.ISBN9782840968009.
Renault, Christophe and Lazé, Christophe,Les Styles de l'architecture et du mobliier, Éditions Jean-Paul Gisserot, 2006 (in French).ISBN9782877474658
Riley, Noël (2004).Grammaire des Arts Décoratifs (in French). Flammarion.
Sarnitz, August (2018).Otto Wagner (in French). Cologne: Taschen.ISBN9783836564328.
Sato, Tamako (2015).Alphonse Mucha: The Artist as Visionary. Cologne: Taschen.ISBN9783836550093.
Sembach, Klaus-Jürgen (2013).L'Art Nouveau: L'Utopie de la Réconciliation (in French). Taschen.ISBN9783822830055.
Sterner, Gabriele,Art Nouveau, an Art of Transition: From Individualism to Mass Society, 1st English ed. (original title:Jugendstil: Kunstformen zwischen Individualismus und Massengesellschaft), translated by Frederick G. Peters and Diana S. Peters, publisher Woodbury, N.Y.:Barron's Educational Series, 1982.ISBN0812021053
Texier, Simon (2012).Paris: Panorama de l'architecture. Parigramme.ISBN9782840966678.
Thiébaut, Philippe (2018).Mucha et l'Art Nouveau (in French). Paris: Éditions du Chêne.ISBN9782812318061.
Vigne, George (2016).Hector Guimard: Le geste magnifique de l'Art Nouveau (in French). Paris: Editions du Patrimoine - Centre des monuments nationaux.ISBN9782757704943.
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![Doorway of the Lavirotte Building, with ceramic sculptures by Jean-Baptiste Larrivé [fr]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aXDSC_7288-29-av-Rapp-paris-7.jpg)
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![The May Queen by Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh (1900)[67]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_May_Queen%2c_by_Margaret_Macdonald_Mackintosh%2c_1900%2c_pencil%2c_watercolour%2c_and_bodycolour%2c_heightened_with_silver%2c_on_oiled_tracing_paper%2c_33_x_69.2_cm%2c_private_collection.jpg)
![Interior hallway view, Hill House, Helensburgh, Scotland, designed and built by Walter Blackie (1902–1904)[68]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHill_House_7_(37376578142).jpg)
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![Mosaic on the façade of Török Bank [fr] building in Budapest by Miksa Róth (1906)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aT%25C3%25B6r%25C3%25B6k_bankhaz_03.JPG)
![Brück House in Timișoara, today in Romania (1911). Along with Oradea, Timișoara is part of the Art Nouveau European Route[92]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTimisoara%2c_Casa_Br%25C3%25BCck.jpg)
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![Mixed with Beaux-Arts architecture - Romulus Porescu House (Strada Doctor Paleologu no. 12) in Bucharest by Dimitrie Maimarolu (1905)[101]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aOld_photo_of_the_Romulus_Porescu_House_in_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
![Mixed with Beaux-Arts architecture - Former Al. Assan shop (Strada Lipscani no. 72–74) in Bucharest, unknown architect (before 1906)[102]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a72-74_Strada_Lipscani%2c_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
![Mixed with Beaux-Arts architecture - Mița the Cyclist House in Bucharest by Nicolae C. Mihăescu (1908), mix of Beaux Arts and Art Nouveau[103]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a9_Strada_Biserica_Amzei%2c_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
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![Stove in the Mița the Cyclist House (Strada Biserica Amzei no. 9), Bucharest, possibly designed by Nicolae C. Mihăescu (1908)[103]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aArt_Nouveau_polychrome_tiled_stove_in_the_Mi%25C8%259Ba_the_Cyclist_House%2c_Bucharest_(04).jpg)
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![Casa Milà in Barcelona by Gaudí (1906–1912)[116]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCasa_Mil%25C3%25A0%2c_general_view.jpg)
![Sanctuary of Maria Magdalena [ca] in Novelda, Valencian Community (1918–1946)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSantuario_Novelda.jpg)
![Sculpture of polychrome terracota by Lambert Escaler [ca] (1902)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEl_Pet%25C3%25B3_Perdut._Lambert_Escaler_i_Mil%25C3%25A0.JPG)
![Furniture by Gaspar Homar [ca] (1903)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a140_La_sardana%2c_plaf%25C3%25B3_de_marqueteria_de_Gaspar_Homar.jpg)
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![Façade of Major Pessoa Residence in Aveiro (1907–1909)[124]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAveiro_Casa_do_Major_Pessoa_856.jpg)
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![An Art Nouveau Fabergé egg[nb 3] (1898)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFaberg%25C3%25A9_egg_Rome_03.JPG)
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![Metal work, ceramics and statues at the façade of Club Español building [es] in Rosario (1912)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aClub_Espa%25C3%25B1ol_Rosario_2.jpg)
![Mexico City Gran Hotel interior, built in 1918 by Jacques Grüber[158][159]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGran_Vitral_Tiffany_del_Hotel_Ciudad_de_Mexico_-_panoramio.jpg)
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![Decorative stylised lettering – Grave of the Caillat Family in Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, by Guimard (1899)[170]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aP%25C3%25A8re-Lachaise_-_Division_2_-_Ernest_Caillat_01_(cropped).jpg)
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![Nymphs – Relief on the Fanny and Isac Popper House (Strada Sfinților no. 1), Bucharest, by Alfred Popper (1914)[171]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a1_Strada_Sfin%25C8%259Bilor%2c_Bucharest_(03).jpg)
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![Mix of Art Nouveau and Gothic Revival – Rue Gustave-Lemaire no. 51 in Dunkirk, France, with pointed arched-dormer windows and balcony loggia, unknown architect, decorated with sculptures by Maurice Ringot (1903–1910)[176]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a51_rue_Gustave_Lemaire.jpg)
![Mix of Art Nouveau and Egyptian Revival – Round corner window of the Romulus Porescu House (Strada Doctor Paleologu no. 12) in Bucharest, decorated with lotus flowers, a motif used frequently in Ancient Egyptian art, designed by Dimitrie Maimarolu (1905)[177]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aNegustori_col%25C8%259B_cu_Paleologu._-streetphotography_-bucharest_-windows_-rusty_-old_(34264373636).jpg)
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![Jack-in-the-pulpit vase by Tiffany (c. 1913)[191]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aNgv%2c_louis_comfort_tiffany%2c_jack-in-the-pulpit_vase%2c_1913_circa_01.JPG)
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![Relief on the façade of the Fanny and Isac Popper House (Strada Sfinților no. 1) in Bucharest, designed by Alfred Popper (1914)[171]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aArt_Nouveau_relief_on_Strada_Sfin%25C8%259Bilor_from_Bucharest_(Romania).jpg)
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%2c_by_Agathon_Leonard%2c_before_1901%2c_Susse_Freres%2c_Paris%2c_gilt_bronze_-_Hessisches_Landesmuseum_Darmstadt_-_Darmstadt%2c_Germany_-_DSC00944.jpg)
![Bust decorating the balconies of 29 avenue Rapp, Paris, by Alexandre Bigot and Jean-Baptiste Larrivé [fr] (1901)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBigot_-_Lavirotte_-_Larriv%25C3%25A9_-_Bust%2c_attic_element_with_green-glaze.jpg)
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![Hand-painted tile panel on the façade of the Grande Maison de Blanc in Brussels, designed by Privat Livemont and made by the Boch Frères Kéramis (1897–98)[219]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGrande_Maison_de_Blanc_Femme_2.JPG)
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![Tiles in the hallway of Allée de la Robertsau no. 56 in Strasbourg, France, designed by Frantz Lütke and Heinrich Backes (1902)[220]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aImmeuble_au_56_all%25C3%25A9e_de_la_Robertsau_%25C3%25A0_Strasbourg.jpg)
![Facade of Avenue Charles-de-Gaulle no. 43, Nevers, France, by Georges-Théodore Renaud (architect) and Alexandre Bigot (ceramist) (1905)[221]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMagasin_43_Avenue_G%25C3%25A9n%25C3%25A9ral_Gaulle_-_Nevers_(FR58)_-_2023-09-21_-_1.jpg)
![Polychrome tiled stove in the Mița the Cyclist House (Strada Biserica Amzei no. 9) in Bucharest, by Nicolae C. Mihăescu (1908)[222]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aArt_Nouveau_polychrome_tiled_stove_in_the_Mi%25C8%259Ba_the_Cyclist_House%2c_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
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![Mosaics designed by Oskar Graf for Merkel’sches Schwimmbad [de] in Esslingen am Neckar, Germany (1905–1907)](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEsslingen_a.N._-_Altstadt_-_Merkelsches_Schwimmbad_-_Fassadenmosaik.jpg)
![Mandylion by Nicholas Roerich in Talashkino, Russia (1908–1914)[226]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChurch_of_the_Holy_Spirit_02.jpg)
![Entry for the House for an art lover competition, by Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1900)[232]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMackintosh%2c_House_for_an_Art_Lover%2c_competition_entry.jpg)
![Secessionist exterior of the Bazil Assan House (Strada Scaune no. 21–23, currently Strada Tudor Arghezi) in Bucharest, by Marcel Kammerer (1902–1911), demolished in the late 1950s or the 1960s to make space for the National Theatre Bucharest[233]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMain_view_of_the_Bazil_Assan_House_in_Bucharest.jpg)
![Secessionist façade of the Stoclet Palace in Brussels, by Josef Hoffmann (1905–1911)[234]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBruxelles_-_Palais_Stoclet_(3)_(cropped_center).jpg)
![Secessionist putto with two cornucopias with floral cascades, very similar to the ones found in a lot of Art Deco of the 1910s and 1920s, by Michael Powolny, designed in c. 1907, produced in 1912, ceramic, Kunstgewerbemuseum Berlin[235]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMichael_powolny_e_bertold_l%25C3%25B6ffler%2c_putto_con_cornucopia%2c_vienna_1912_ca.jpg)
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![Sinuous curves on the façade of Avenue Montaigne no. 26 in Paris, by Louis Duhayon and Marcel Julien (1937)[236]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAvenue_Montaigne_(47128639262).jpg)
![Kalandestraat no. 1 in Ghent, Belgium, by Denis Van Impe and Colette Van Vynckt (1980)[238]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTouch%25C3%25A9_Gent_(32840632118).jpg)
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