His innovative music was among the most influential and polemicized of 20th-century classical music. At least three generations of composers extended its somewhatformal principles. His aesthetic and music-historical views influenced musicologistsTheodor W. Adorno andCarl Dahlhaus.[c] TheArnold Schönberg Center collects his archival legacy.
Arnold Schoenberg was born into a lower middle-classJewish family in theLeopoldstadt district (in earlier times a Jewishghetto) of Vienna, at Obere Donaustraße 5. His father Samuel, a native ofSzécsény, Hungary,[d] later moved to Pozsony (Pressburg, at that time part of the Kingdom of Hungary, nowBratislava, Slovakia) and then to Vienna, was a shoe-shopkeeper. He was married to Pauline Nachod, a Prague native whose family belong to theAltneuschul synagogue.[3] Arnold was largely self-taught. He took onlycounterpoint lessons with the composerAlexander Zemlinsky, who was to become his first brother-in-law.[4]
In his twenties, Schoenberg earned a living by orchestratingoperettas, while composing his own works, such as the string sextetVerklärte Nacht ("Transfigured Night") (1899). He later made an orchestral version of this, which became one of his most popular pieces. BothRichard Strauss andGustav Mahler recognized Schoenberg's significance as a composer; Strauss when he encountered Schoenberg'sGurre-Lieder, and Mahler after hearing several of Schoenberg's early works.
Strauss turned to a more conservative idiom in his own work after 1909, and at that point dismissed Schoenberg. Mahler adopted him as a protégé and continued to support him, even after Schoenberg's style reached a point Mahler could no longer understand. Mahler worried about who would look after him after his death.[5] Schoenberg, who had initially despised and mocked Mahler's music, was converted by the "thunderbolt" of Mahler'sThird Symphony, which he considered a work of genius. Afterward he "spoke of Mahler as a saint".[6][7]
In 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in theLutheran church. According to MacDonald (2008, 93) this was partly to strengthen his attachment to Western European cultural traditions, and partly as a means of self-defence "in a time of resurgent anti-Semitism". In 1933, after long meditation, he returned to Judaism, because he realised that "his racial and religious heritage was inescapable", and to take up an unmistakable position on the side opposing Nazism. He would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life.[8]
In October 1901, Schoenberg married Mathilde Zemlinsky, the sister of the conductor and composerAlexander von Zemlinsky, with whom Schoenberg had been studying since about 1894. Schoenberg and Mathilde had two children, Gertrud (1902–1947) and Georg (1906–1974). Gertrud would marry Schoenberg's pupilFelix Greissle [de] in 1921.[9]
During the summer of 1908, Schoenberg's wife Mathilde left him for several months for a young Austrian painter,Richard Gerstl (who committed suicide in that November after Mathilde returned to her marriage). This period marked a distinct change in Schoenberg's work. It was during the absence of his wife that he composed "You lean against a silver-willow" (German:Du lehnest wider eine Silberweide), the thirteenth song in the cycleDas Buch der Hängenden Gärten, Op. 15, based on the collection of the same name by the German mystical poetStefan George. This was the first composition without any reference at all to akey.[10]
Also in this year, Schoenberg completed one of his most revolutionary compositions, theString Quartet No. 2. The first two movements, though chromatic in color, use traditionalkey signatures. The final two movements, again using poetry by George, incorporate a soprano vocal line, breaking with previous string-quartet practice, and daringly weaken the links with traditionaltonality. Both movements end ontonic chords, and the work is not fully non-tonal.
During the summer of 1910, Schoenberg wrote hisHarmonielehre (Theory of Harmony, Schoenberg 1922), which remains one of the most influential music-theory books. From about 1911, Schoenberg belonged to a circle of artists and intellectuals who includedLene Schneider-Kainer,Franz Werfel,Herwarth Walden, andElse Lasker-Schüler.
In 1910 he metEdward Clark, an English music journalist then working in Germany. Clark became his sole English student, and in his later capacity as a producer for the BBC he was responsible for introducing many of Schoenberg's works, and Schoenberg himself, to Britain (as well asWebern,Berg and others). Clark assisted Schoenberg to relocate from Vienna to Berlin in 1911.[11]
Another of his most important works from this atonal or pantonal period is the highly influentialPierrot lunaire, Op. 21, of 1912, a novel cycle of expressionist songs set to a German translation of poems by the Belgian-French poetAlbert Giraud. Utilizing the technique ofSprechstimme, or melodramatically spoken recitation, the work pairs a female vocalist with a small ensemble of five musicians. The ensemble, which is now commonly referred to as thePierrot ensemble, consists of flute (doubling onpiccolo), clarinet (doubling onbass clarinet), violin (doubling on viola), violoncello, speaker, and piano.
Wilhelm Bopp [de], director of theVienna Conservatory from 1907, wanted a break from the stale environment personified for him byRobert Fuchs andHermann Graedener. Having considered many candidates, he offered teaching positions to Schoenberg andFranz Schreker in 1912. Although now living in Berlin, he was not completely cut off from the Vienna Conservatory, having taught a private theory course a year earlier. He seriously considered the offer, but he declined. Writing afterward to Alban Berg, he cited his "aversion to Vienna" as the main reason for his decision, while contemplating that it might have been the wrong one financially, but having made it he felt content. A couple of months later he wrote to Schreker suggesting that it might have been a bad idea for him as well to accept the teaching position.[12]
World War I brought a crisis in his development. Military service disrupted his life when at the age of 42 he was in the army. He was never able to work uninterrupted or over a period of time, and as a result he left many unfinished works and undeveloped "beginnings".
On one occasion, a superior officer demanded to know if he was "this notorious Schoenberg, then"; Schoenberg replied: "Beg to report, sir, yes. Nobody wanted to be, someone had to be, so I let it be me".[13] According toNorman Lebrecht, this is a reference to Schoenberg's apparent "destiny" as the"Emancipator of Dissonance".[14]
Schoenberg drew comparisons between Germany's assault on France and his assault on decadent bourgeois artistic values. In August 1914, while denouncing the music ofBizet,Stravinsky, andRavel, he wrote: "Now comes the reckoning! Now we will throw these mediocre kitschmongers into slavery, and teach them to venerate the German spirit and to worship the German God".Alex Ross described this as an "act of war psychosis".[15]
The deteriorating relation between contemporary composers and the public led him to found theSociety for Private Musical Performances (Verein für musikalische Privataufführungen in German) in Vienna in 1918. He sought to provide a forum in which modern musical compositions could be carefully prepared and rehearsed, and properly performed under conditions protected from the dictates of fashion and pressures of commerce.
From its inception until its dissolution amidAustrian hyperinflation, the Society presented 353 performances to paying members, sometimes weekly. During the first year and a half, Schoenberg did not let any of his own works be performed.[16] Instead, audiences at the Society's concerts heard difficult contemporary compositions byScriabin,Debussy, Mahler, Webern, Berg,Reger, and other leading figures of early 20th-century music.[17]
Later, Schoenberg was to develop the most influential version of the dodecaphonic (also known astwelve-tone) method of composition, which in French and English was given the alternative nameserialism byRené Leibowitz andHumphrey Searle in 1947. This technique was taken up by many of his students, who constituted the so-calledSecond Viennese School. They includedAnton Webern,Alban Berg, andHanns Eisler, all of whom were profoundly influenced by Schoenberg. He published a number of books, ranging from his famousHarmonielehre (Theory of Harmony) toFundamentals of Musical Composition,[18] many of which are still in print and used by musicians and developing composers.
Schoenberg viewed his development as a natural progression, and he did not deprecate his earlier works when he ventured into serialism. In 1923 he wrote to the Swiss philanthropistWerner Reinhart:
For the present, it matters more to me if people understand my older works ... They are the natural forerunners of my later works, and only those who understand and comprehend these will be able to gain an understanding of the later works that goes beyond a fashionable bare minimum. I do not attach so much importance to being a musical bogey-man as to being a natural continuer of properly-understood good old tradition![19][20]
His first wife died in October 1923, and in August of the next year Schoenberg marriedGertrud Kolisch (1898–1967), sister of his pupil, the violinistRudolf Kolisch.[9][21] They had three children: Nuria Dorothea (born 1932), Ronald Rudolf (born 1937), and Lawrence Adam (born 1941). Gertrude Kolisch Schoenberg wrote the libretto for Schoenberg's one-act operaVon heute auf morgen under the pseudonym Max Blonda. At her request Schoenberg's (ultimately unfinished) piece,Die Jakobsleiter was prepared for performance by Schoenberg's studentWinfried Zillig. After her husband's death in 1951 she founded Belmont Music Publishers devoted to the publication of his works.[22][23] Arnold used the notes G and E♭ (German: Es, i.e., "S") for "Gertrud Schoenberg", in theSuite, for septet, Op. 29 (1925).[24] (seemusical cryptogram).
Following the death in 1924 of composerFerruccio Busoni, who had served as Director of a Master Class in Composition at thePrussian Academy of Arts in Berlin, Schoenberg was appointed to this post the next year, but because of health problems was unable to take up his post until 1926. Among his notable students during this period were the composers Robert Gerhard,Nikos Skalkottas, andJosef Rufer.
Along with his twelve-tone works, 1930 marks Schoenberg's return to tonality, with numbers 4 and 6 of the Six Pieces for Male Chorus Op. 35, the other pieces being dodecaphonic.[25]
Schoenberg continued in his post until the Nazis seized power in 1933. While on vacation in France, he was warned that returning to Germany would be dangerous. Schoenberg formally reclaimed membership in the Jewish religion at a Paris synagogue,[26] then emigrated to the United States with his family.[27] He subsequently gave brief consideration to moving again, either to England or the Soviet Union.[28]
After his move to the United States, where he arrived on 31 October 1933,[41] the composer used the alternative spelling of his surnameSchoenberg, rather thanSchönberg, in what he called "deference to American practice",[42] though according to one writer he first made the change a year earlier.[43]
He lived there the rest of his life, but at first he was not settled. In 1934, he applied for a teacher of harmony and theory position at theNew South Wales State Conservatorium in Sydney.Vincent Plush discovered his application in the 1970s. It bore two notes in different handwriting: "Jewish" in one and "Modernist ideas and dangerous tendencies" in another marked E.B. (Edgar Bainton).[44] Schoenberg also explored the idea of emigrating to New Zealand. His secretary and studentRichard Hoffmann, the nephew of Schoenberg's mother-in-law Henriette Kolisch, lived in New Zealand in 1935–1947. Schoenberg had since childhood been fascinated with islands and with New Zealand in particular, possibly because of its postage stamps.[45] He abandoned the idea of moving to New Zealand after his health began to decline in 1944.[46]
During this final period, he composed several notable works, including the difficultViolin Concerto, Op. 36 (1934/36), theKol Nidre, Op. 39, for chorus and orchestra (1938), theOde to Napoleon Buonaparte, Op. 41 (1942), the hauntingPiano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942), and his memorial to the victims of theHolocaust,A Survivor from Warsaw, Op. 46 (1947). He was unable to complete his operaMoses und Aron (1932/33), which was one of the first works of its genre written completely usingdodecaphonic composition. Along with twelve-tone music, Schoenberg also returned to tonality with works during his last period, like the Suite for Strings in G major (1935), theChamber Symphony No. 2 in E♭ minor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939), the Variations on a Recitative in D minor, Op. 40 (1941). During this period his notable students includedJohn Cage andLou Harrison.[38]
In 1941, he became a citizen of the United States.[47] He was the first composer in residence at theMusic Academy of the West summer conservatory in Montecito, California.[48]
Schoenberg's superstitious nature may have triggered his death. The composer hadtriskaidekaphobia, and according to friend Katia Mann, he feared he would die during a year that was a multiple of 13.[49] This possibly began in 1908 with the composition of the thirteenth song of the song cycleDas Buch der Hängenden Gärten Op. 15.[10] He dreaded his sixty-fifth birthday in 1939 so much that a friend asked the composer andastrologerDane Rudhyar to prepare Schoenberg'shoroscope. Rudhyar did this and told Schoenberg that the year was dangerous, but not fatal.
But in 1950, on his 76th birthday, an astrologer wrote Schoenberg a note warning him that the year was a critical one: 7 + 6 = 13.[50] This stunned and depressed the composer, for up to that point he had only been wary of multiples of 13 and never considered adding the digits of his age. He died onFriday, 13 July 1951, shortly before midnight. Schoenberg had stayed in bed all day, sick, anxious, and depressed. His wife Gertrud reported in a telegram to her sister-in-law Ottilie the next day that Arnold died at 11:45 pm, 15 minutes before midnight.[51] In a letter to Ottilie dated 4 August 1951, Gertrud explained, "About a quarter to twelve I looked at the clock and said to myself: another quarter of an hour and then the worst is over. Then the doctor called me. Arnold's throat rattled twice, his heart gave a powerful beat and that was the end".[52]
Schoenberg's ashes were later interred at theZentralfriedhof in Vienna on 6 June 1974.[53]
Played by theCarmel Quartet with soprano Rona Israel-Kolatt, in 2007
In Schoenberg'sVariations for Orchestra, Op. 31,tone row form P1's second half has the same notes, in a different order, as the first half of I10: "Thus it is possible to employ P1 and I10 simultaneously and in parallel motion without causing note doubling".[54] Featuringhexachordal combinatoriality between its primary forms, P1 and I6, Schoenberg's Piano Piece, Op. 33a, tone row contains threeperfect fifths, which is the relation between P1 and I6, and a source of contrast between "accumulations of 5ths" and "generally more complex simultaneity".[55] For example, group A consists of B♭-F-C-B♮, while the "more blended" group B consists of A-F♯-C♯-D♯
Schoenberg's significant compositions in the repertory of modern art music extend over a period of more than 50 years. Traditionally they are divided into three periods though this division is arguably arbitrary as the music in each of these periods is considerably varied. The idea that his twelve-tone period "represents a stylistically unified body of works is simply not supported by the musical evidence",[56] and important musical characteristics—especially those related tomotivicdevelopment—transcend these boundaries completely.
The first of these periods, 1894–1907, is identified in the legacy of the high-Romantic composers of the late nineteenth century, as well as withexpressionist movements in poetry and art. The second, 1908–1922, is typified by the abandonment ofkey centers, a move often described (though not by Schoenberg) as "free atonality". The third, from 1923 onward, commences with Schoenberg's invention ofdodecaphonic, or "twelve-tone" compositional method. Schoenberg's best-known students,Hanns Eisler,Alban Berg, andAnton Webern, followed Schoenberg faithfully through each of these intellectual and aesthetic transitions, though not without considerable experimentation and variety of approach.
Beginning with songs and string quartets written around the turn of the century, Schoenberg's concerns as a composer positioned him uniquely among his peers, in that his procedures exhibited characteristics of bothBrahms andWagner, who for most contemporary listeners, were considered polar opposites, representing mutually exclusive directions in the legacy of German music. Schoenberg'sZwei Gesänge, Op. 1, first performed in 1903, set two contemporary poems to expressive music bordering the limits of theLied genre. Schoenberg's Six Songs, Op. 3 (1899–1903), for example, exhibit a conservative clarity oftonal organization typical of Brahms and Mahler, reflecting an interest in balanced phrases and an undisturbedhierarchy of key relationships. However, the songs also explore unusually bold incidentalchromaticism and seem to aspire to a Wagnerian "representational" approach to motivic identity.
The synthesis of these approaches reaches an apex in hisVerklärte Nacht, Op. 4 (1899), aprogrammatic work forstring sextet that develops several distinctive "leitmotif"-likethemes, each one eclipsing and subordinating the last. The only motivic elements that persist throughout the work are those that are perpetually dissolved, varied, and re-combined, in a technique, identified primarily in Brahms's music, that Schoenberg called "developing variation". Schoenberg's procedures in the work are organized in two ways simultaneously; at once suggesting a Wagnerian narrative of motivic ideas, as well as a Brahmsian approach to motivic development and tonal cohesion.
Citing Berg and Webern on Schoenberg'sString Quartet No. 1, Op. 7 (1904–1905),[57] Joseph N. Straus emphasized the importance of "motivic coherence" in the three'sœuvres more generally.[58][e] "Every smallest turn ofphrase, evenaccompanimentalfiguration is significant", Berg asserted, parenthetically praising Schoenberg's "excess unheard-of sinceBach". Webern marveled at how "Schoenberg creates an accompaniment figure from a motivic particle", proclaiming "everything is thematic! There is ... not a single note ... that does not have a thematic basis."[57]
The urgency of musical constructions lacking in tonal centers or traditionaldissonance-consonance relationships can be traced as far back as Schoenberg'sChamber Symphony No. 1, Op. 9 (1906). This work is remarkable for its tonal development ofwhole-tone andquartal harmony, and its initiation of dynamic and unusual ensemble relationships, involving dramatic interruption and unpredictable instrumental allegiances. Many of these features would typify thetimbre-orientedchamber-music aesthetic of the coming century.
Schoenberg's music from 1908 onward experiments in a variety of ways with the absence of traditional keys ortonal centers. His first explicitly atonal piece was thesecond string quartet, Op. 10, with soprano. The last movement of this piece has no key signature, marking Schoenberg's formal divorce fromdiatonic harmonies. Other important works of the era include his song cycleDas Buch der Hängenden Gärten, Op. 15 (1908–1909), hisFive Orchestral Pieces, Op. 16 (1909), the influentialPierrot lunaire, Op. 21 (1912), as well as his dramaticErwartung, Op. 17 (1909). Surveying Schoenberg's Opp. 10, 15–16, and 19, Webern argued: "It creates entirelynew expressive values; therefore it also needs new means of expression.Content and form cannot be separated."[60]
Analysts (most prominentlyAllen Forte) so emphasized motivic shapes in Schoenberg's (and Berg's and Webern's) "free atonal" music thatBenjamin Boretz and William Benjamin suggested referring to it as "motivic" music. Schoenberg himself described his use of a motivic unit "varied and developed in manifold ways" inFour Orchestral Songs, Op. 22 (1913–1916), writing that he was "in the preliminary stages of a procedure ... which allows for a motif to be a constant basis". Straus considered that the designation "'motivic' music" might apply "in a modified way" to twelve-tone music more generally.[57]
In the aftermath ofWorld War I, Schoenberg sought an ordering principle that would make his musicaltexture simpler and clearer. Thus he arrived at his "method of composing with twelve tones which are related only with one another".[61] All twelve pitches of the octave (usually unrealized compositionally) are regarded as equal, and no one note or tonality is given the emphasis it occupied in classical harmony. Schoenberg regarded the twelve-tone system as the equivalent in music ofAlbert Einstein's discoveries in physics. Schoenberg toldJosef Rufer, "I have made a discovery which will ensure the supremacy of German music for the next hundred years".[62]
Among Schoenberg's twelve-tone works are theVariations for Orchestra, Op. 31 (1928);Begleitungsmusik zu einer Lichtspielscene, Op. 34 (1930);Piano Pieces, Opp. 33a & b (1931), and thePiano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942). Contrary to its reputation for doctrinaire strictness, Schoenberg's technique varied according to the musical demands of each composition. Thus the musical structure of his unfinished operaMoses und Aron is fundamentally different from that of his Phantasy for Violin and Piano, Op. 47 (1949).
Ten features of Schoenberg's mature twelve-tone practice are generally characteristic, interdependent, and interactive according to Ethan Haimo:[63]
After some early difficulties, Schoenberg began to win public acceptance with works such as the tone poemPelleas und Melisande at a Berlin performance in 1907. At the Vienna première of theGurre-Lieder in 1913, he received an ovation that lasted a quarter of an hour and culminated with Schoenberg's being presented with a laurel crown.[64][65]
Nonetheless, much of his work was not well received. HisChamber Symphony No. 1 premièred unremarkably in 1907. However, when it was played again in theSkandalkonzert on 31 March 1913, (which also included works byBerg,Webern andZemlinsky), "one could hear the shrill sound of door keys among the violent clapping, and in the second gallery the first fight of the evening began." Later in the concert, during a performance of theAltenberg Lieder by Berg, fighting broke out after Schoenberg interrupted the performance to threaten removal by the police of any troublemakers.[66]
According to Ethan Haimo, the general understanding of Schoenberg's twelve-tone work has been difficult to achieve because of the "truly revolutionary nature" of his new system, misinformation disseminated by some early writers about the system's "rules" and "exceptions" that bear "little relation to the most significant features of Schoenberg's music", the composer's secretiveness, and the widespread unavailability of his sketches and manuscripts until the late 1970s. During his life, Schoenberg was "subjected to a range of criticism and abuse that is shocking even in hindsight".[67]
Watschenkonzert, caricature inDie Zeit from 6 April 1913
Schoenberg criticizedIgor Stravinsky's new neoclassical trend in the poem "Vielseitigkeit" (in which he derogatesneoclassicism, and obliquely refers to Stravinsky as "Der kleine Modernsky"), which he used as text for the second of hisDrei Satiren, Op. 28.[68] The third of theDrei Satiren, "Der neue Klassizismus", also takes aim at the neoclassical trend in general.[69]
Schoenberg's serial technique of composition with twelve notes became one of the most central and polemical issues among American and European musicians during the mid- to late-twentieth century. Beginning in the 1940s and continuing to the present day, composers such asPierre Boulez,Karlheinz Stockhausen,Luigi Nono andMilton Babbitt have extended Schoenberg's legacy in increasingly radical directions. The major cities of the United States (e.g., Los Angeles, New York, and Boston) have had historically significant performances of Schoenberg's music, with advocates such as Babbitt in New York and the Franco-American conductor-pianistJacques-Louis Monod. Schoenberg's students have been influential teachers at major American universities:Leonard Stein atUSC,UCLA andCalArts; Richard Hoffmann atOberlin;Patricia Carpenter atColumbia; andLeon Kirchner and Earl Kim atHarvard. Musicians associated with Schoenberg have had a profound influence on contemporary music performance practice in the US (e.g.,Louis Krasner,Eugene Lehner andRudolf Kolisch at theNew England Conservatory of Music;Eduard Steuermann andFelix Galimir at theJuilliard School). In Europe, the work ofHans Keller,Luigi Rognoni [it], and René Leibowitz has had a measurable influence in spreading Schoenberg's musical legacy outside of Germany and Austria. His pupil and assistantMax Deutsch, who later became a professor of music, was also a conductor.[70] who made a recording of three "master works" Schoenberg with theOrchestre de la Suisse Romande, released posthumously in late 2013. This recording includes short lectures by Deutsch on each of the pieces.[71]
In the 1920s,Ernst Krenek criticized a certain unnamed brand of contemporary music (presumably Schoenberg and his disciples) as "the self-gratification of an individual who sits in his studio and invents rules according to which he then writes down his notes". Schoenberg took offense at this remark and answered that Krenek "wishes for only whores as listeners".[72]
Allen Shawn has noted that, given Schoenberg's living circumstances, his work is usuallydefended rather than listened to, and that it is difficult to experience itapart from the ideology that surrounds it.[73]Richard Taruskin asserted that Schoenberg committed what he terms a "poietic fallacy", the conviction that what matters most (or all that matters) in a work of art is the making of it, the maker's input, and that the listener's pleasure must not be the composer's primary objective.[74] Taruskin also criticizes the ideas of measuring Schoenberg's value as a composer in terms of his influence on other artists, the overrating of technical innovation, and the restriction of criticism to matters of structure and craft while derogating other approaches as vulgarian.[75]
Writing in 1977,Christopher Small observed, "Many music lovers, even today, find difficulty with Schoenberg's music".[76] Small wrote his short biography a quarter of a century after the composer's death. According toNicholas Cook, writing some twenty years after Small, Schoenberg had thought that this lack of comprehension
was merely a transient, if unavoidable phase: the history of music, they said, showed that audiences always resisted the unfamiliar, but in time they got used to it and learned to appreciate it ... Schoenberg himself looked forward to a time when, as he said, grocers' boys would whistle serial music in their rounds.If Schoenberg really believed what he said (and it is hard to be quite sure about this), then it represents one of the most poignant moments in the history of music. For serialism did not achieve popularity; the process of familiarization for which he and his contemporaries were waiting never occurred.[77]
Ben Earle (2003) found that Schoenberg, while revered by experts and taught to "generations of students" on degree courses, remained unloved by the public. Despite more than forty years of advocacy and the production of "books devoted to the explanation of this difficult repertory to non-specialist audiences", it would seem that in particular, "British attempts to popularize music of this kind ... can now safely be said to have failed".[78]
In his 2018 biography of Schoenberg's near contemporary and similarly pioneering composer, Debussy,Stephen Walsh takes issue with the idea that it is not possible "for a creative artist to be both radical and popular". Walsh concludes, "Schoenberg may be the first 'great' composer in modern history whose music has not entered the repertoire almost a century and a half after his birth".[79]
Adrian Leverkühn, the protagonist ofThomas Mann's novelDoctor Faustus (1947), is a composer whose use of twelve-tone technique parallels the innovations of Arnold Schoenberg. Leverkühn, who may be based onNietzsche, sells his soul to the Devil and is rewarded with superhuman talent. Schoenberg was unhappy about this and initiated an exchange of letters with Mann following the novel's publication.[80] WriterSean O'Brien comments that "written in the shadow of Hitler,Doktor Faustus observes the rise of Nazism, but its relationship to political history is oblique".[81] Thomas Mann was always primarily interested in classical music, which also plays a role in many of his works. He sought and received advice fromTheodor W. Adorno on the technical compositional details of Schoenberg's new music, and revised the chapters accordingly.[82]
Schoenberg was a painter of considerable ability, whose works were considered good enough to exhibit alongside those ofFranz Marc andWassily Kandinsky[84] as fellow members of theexpressionist groupDer Blaue Reiter.[85] From about 1908 to 1910, he would execute approximately two-thirds of a total oeuvre comprising about sixty-five oils.[86]
He was interested inHopalong Cassidy films, which Paul Buhle and David Wagner (2002, v–vii) attribute to the films' left-wing screenwriters—a rather odd claim in light of Schoenberg's statement that he was a "bourgeois" turnedmonarchist.[87]
1922.Harmonielehre, third edition. Vienna: Universal Edition. (Originally published 1911).
1943.Models for Beginners in Composition, New York: G. Schirmer, Inc.
1954.Structural Functions of Harmony. New York: W. W. Norton; London: Williams and Norgate. Revised edition, New York, London: W. W. Norton and Company 1969.ISBN978-0-393-00478-6
1964.Preliminary Exercises in Counterpoint, edited with a foreword by Leonard Stein. New York, St. Martin's Press. Reprinted, Los Angeles: Belmont Music Publishers 2003.
1967.Fundamentals of Musical Composition, edited byGerald Strang, with an introduction by Leonard Stein. New York: St. Martin's Press. Reprinted 1985, London: Faber and Faber.ISBN978-0-571-09276-5
1978.Theory of Harmony, English edition, translated by Roy E. Carter, based onHarmonielehre 1922. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-03464-8
1979.Die Grundlagen der musikalischen Komposition, translated into German by Rudolf Kolisch; edited byRudolf Stephan. Vienna: Universal Edition (German translation ofFundamentals of Musical Composition).
2003.Preliminary Exercises in Counterpoint, Reprinted, Los Angeles: Belmont Music Publishers.
2010.Theory of Harmony, 100th Anniversary Edition. Berkeley: California University Press. 2nd edition.ISBN978-0-52026-608-7
2016.Models for Beginners in Composition, Reprinted, London: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19538-221-1
1947. "The Musician". InThe Works of the Mind, edited by Robert B. Heywood,[page needed] Chicago: University of Chicago Press.OCLC752682744
1950.Style and Idea: Selected Writings of Arnold Schoenberg, edited and translated byDika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library.
1958.Ausgewählte Briefe, by B. Schott's Söhne, Mainz.
1964.Arnold Schoenberg Letters, selected and edited by Erwin Stein, translated from the original German by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser. London: Faber and Faber Ltd.
1965.Arnold Schoenberg Letters, selected and edited by Erwin Stein, translated from the original German by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser. New York: St.Martin's Press.
1975.Style and Idea: Selected Writings of Arnold Schoenberg, edited by Leonard Stein, with translations by Leo Black. New York: St. Martins Press; London: Faber & Faber.ISBN978-0-520-05294-9 Expanded from the 1950 Philosophical Library (New York) publication edited by Dika Newlin (559 pages from 231). The volume carries the note "Several of the essays ... were originally written in German (translated by Dika Newlin)" in both editions.
1984.Style and Idea: Selected Writings, translated by Leo Black. Berkeley: California University Press.
1987.Arnold Schoenberg Letters, selected and edited by Erwin Stein, translated from the original German by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-06009-8
2006.The Musical Idea and the Logic, Technique, and Art of Its Presentation, new paperback English edition. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-25321-835-3
2010.Style and Idea: Selected Writings, 60th anniversary (second) edition, translated by Leonard Stein and Leo Black. Berkeley: California University Press.ISBN978-0-52026-607-0
^Text: "Die Trauung von »Samuel Schönberg aus Pressburg mit der Jgf. Pauline Nachod aus Prag« wurde in der »Wochenschrift für politische, religiöse und Cultur-Interessen« angezeigt. Diese Angaben divergieren vom Aufgebot, das die Kultusgemeinde veröffentlichte: 17. März (1872) 12 ½ Samuel Schönberg Kaufmann aus Szécsény Sohn d. H. Abraham und Fr. Theresia geb Löwy 15. Sept, 1838 II, Taborstr. 4 Pauline Nachod aus Preßburg, Tochter d. H. Josef und d. Fr. Karoline geb. Jontow. 8. März 1843. II Taborstraße 4. Aufgebotsz. u. Deleg. Pressburg 2. März 1872."
^Brown, Kellie D. (2020).The sound of hope: Music as solace, resistance and salvation during the holocaust and world war II. McFarland. p. 16.ISBN978-1-4766-7056-0.
^Hermann Kurzke,Thomas Mann: Life as a Work of Art: A Biography, chapter XVII (Doctor Faustus), subchapterThe guide, Princeton University Press (2002).
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