Hayk, the legendary founder of the Armenian nation. Painting byMkrtum Hovnatanian (1779–1846)
The earliest attestations of theexonymArmenia date around the 6th century BC. In his trilingualBehistun Inscription dated to 517 BC,Darius I the Great ofPersia refers toUrashtu (inBabylonian) asArmina (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎷𐎡𐎴) andHarminuya (in Elamite).InGreek,Armenios (Αρμένιοι) is attested from about the same time, perhaps the earliest reference being a fragment attributed toHecataeus of Miletus (476 BC).[54]Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC.[55][56]
Some have linked the nameArmenia with the Early Bronze Age state ofArmani (Armanum, Armi) or the Late Bronze Age state ofArme (Shupria).[57]Armini, Urartian for "inhabitant of Arme" or "Armean country", referring to the region of Shupria, to the immediate west of Lake Van.[58] The Arme tribe of Urartian texts may have been the Urumu, who in the 12th century BC attempted to invade Assyria from the north with their allies theMushki and theKaskians. The Urumu apparently settled in the vicinity ofSason, lending their name to the regions of Arme and the nearby lands of Urme and Inner Urumu.[59] The location of the older site of Armani is a matter of debate. Some modern researchers have placed it in the same general area as Arme, near modernSamsat,[60] and have suggested it was populated, at least partially, by an earlyIndo-European-speaking people.[61] The relationship between Armani and the later Arme-Shupria, if any, is undetermined. Additionally, their connections to Armenians is inconclusive as it is not known what languages were spoken in these regions.
It has also been speculated that the land ofErmenen (located in or nearMinni), mentioned by the Egyptian pharaohThutmose III in 1446 BCE, could be a reference to Armenia.
Armenians call themselvesHay (Armenian:հայ, pronounced [ˈhaj]; plural: հայեր, [haˈjɛɾ]). The name has traditionally been derived fromHayk (Armenian:Հայկ), the legendary patriarch of the Armenians and a great-great-grandson ofNoah, who, according toMovses Khorenatsi (Moses of Khorene), defeated theBabylonian king Bel in2492 BC and established his nation in theArarat region.[62] It is also further postulated[63][64] that the nameHay comes from, or is related to, one of the two confederated,Hittite vassal states—Hayasa-Azzi (1600–1200 BC). Ultimately,Hay may derive from theProto Indo-European wordspóti (meaning "lord" or "master")[65] or*h₂éyos/*áyos (meaning "metal").[66]
Khorenatsi wrote that the wordArmenian originated from the name Armenak orAram (the descendant of Hayk).[67] Khorenatsi refers to both Armenia and Armenians asHayk‘ (Armenian: Հայք) (not to be confused with the aforementioned patriarch, Hayk).[citation needed]
An Armenian tribute bearer carrying a metal vessel with griffin handles.Persepolis, 5th century BC.A bas-relief at theApadana inPersepolis, depicting Armenians bringing their famous wine to theShah.
While theArmenian language is classified as anIndo-European language, its placement within the broader Indo-European language family is a matter of debate. Until fairly recently, scholars believed Armenian to be most closely related toGreek andAncient Macedonian.Eric P. Hamp placed Armenian in the "Pontic Indo-European" (also calledGraeco-Armenian or Helleno-Armenian) subgroup of Indo-European languages in his 2012 Indo-European family tree.[68] There are two possible explanations, not mutually exclusive, for a common origin of the Armenian and Greek languages.
In Hamp's view, the homeland of the proposed Graeco-Armenian subgroup is the northeast coast of the Black Sea and its hinterlands.[68] He assumes that they migrated from there southeast through the Caucasus with the Armenians remaining afterBatumi while the pre-Greeks proceeded westward along the southern coast of the Black Sea.[68]
Ancient Greek historianHerodotus (writingc. 440 BCE), suggested that Armenians migrated fromPhrygia, a region that encompassed much of western and centralAnatolia during theIron Age: "the Armenians were equipped like Phrygians, being Phrygian colonists" (7.73) (Ἀρμένιοι δὲ κατά περ Φρύγες ἐσεσάχατο, ἐόντες Φρυγῶν ἄποικοι.). This statement was interpreted by later scholars as meaning that Armenians spoke a language derived fromPhrygian, a poorly attested Indo-European language. However, this theory has been discredited.[69][70] Ancient Greek writers believed that the Phrygians had originated in theBalkans, in an area adjoining Macedonia, from where they had emigrated to Anatolia during theBronze Age collapse. This led later scholars to theorize that Armenians also originated in the Balkans. However, an Armenian origin in the Balkans, although once widely accepted, has been facing increased scrutiny in recent years due to discrepancies in the timeline and lack of genetic[71] and archeological evidence.[68][72][73] The view that Armenians are native to theSouth Caucasus is supported by ancient Armenian historical accounts and legends, which place theArarat Plain as the cradle of Armenian culture, as well as modern genetic research. In fact, some scholars have suggested that the Phrygians or the apparently relatedMushki people were originally from Armenia and moved westward.[74]
Some linguists tentatively conclude that Armenian,Greek (andPhrygian) andIndo-Iranian were dialectally close to each other;[75][76][77][78][79][80] within this hypothetical dialect group, Proto-Armenian was situated betweenProto-Greek (centum subgroup) andProto-Indo-Iranian (satem subgroup).[81] This has led some scholars to propose a hypotheticalGraeco-Armenian-Aryan clade within the Indo-European language family from which the Armenian, Greek, Indo-Iranian, and possibly Phrygian languages all descend.[82] According to Kim (2018), however, there is insufficient evidence for a cladistic connection between Armenian and Greek, and common features between these two languages can be explained as a result of contact. Contact is also the most likely explanation for morphological features shared by Armenian with Indo-Iranian andBalto-Slavic languages.[83]
It has been suggested that theBronze AgeTrialeti-Vanadzor culture and sites such as the burial complexes atVerin and Nerkin Naver are indicative of an Indo-European presence in Armenia by the end of the 3rd millennium BCE.[84][85][86][87][88][89][73] The controversialArmenian hypothesis, put forward by some scholars, such asThomas Gamkrelidze andVyacheslav V. Ivanov, proposes that theIndo-European homeland was around the Armenian Highland.[90] This theory was partially confirmed by the research of geneticistDavid Reich (et al. 2018), among others.[91][92][93] Similarly Grolle (et al. 2018) supports not only a homeland for Armenians on the Armenian highlands, but also that the Armenian highlands are the homeland for the "pre-proto-Indo-Europeans".[94] A large genetic study in 2022 showed that many Armenians are "direct patrilineal descendants of theYamnaya".[95]
Genetic studies explain Armenian diversity by several mixtures of Eurasian populations that occurred between 3000 and 2000 BCE. But genetic signals of population mixture cease after 1200 BCE when Bronze Age civilizations in the Eastern Mediterranean world suddenly and violently collapsed. Armenians have since remained isolated and genetic structure within the population developed ~500 years ago when Armenia was divided between the Ottomans and the Safavid Empire in Iran.[96][97] A genetic study (Wang et al. 2018) supports theindigenous origin for Armenians in a region south of the Caucasus which he calls "Greater Caucasus".[98]
Luwianologist John D. Hawkins proposed that "Hai" people were possibly mentioned in the 10th century BCEHieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions fromCarchemish.[101]A.E. Redgate later clarified that these "Hai" people may have been Armenians.[102]
In 885 CE the Armenians reestablished themselves as a sovereign kingdom under the leadership ofAshot I of theBagratid Dynasty. A considerable portion of the Armenian nobility and peasantry fled the Byzantine occupation of Bagratid Armenia in 1045, and the subsequent invasion of the region bySeljuk Turks in 1064. They settled in large numbers inCilicia, an Anatolian region where Armenians were already established as a minority since Roman times. In 1080, they founded an independentArmenian Principality then Kingdom of Cilicia, which became the focus of Armenian nationalism. The Armenians developed close social, cultural, military, and religious ties with nearbyCrusader States,[108] but eventually succumbed toMamluk invasions. In the next few centuries,Djenghis Khan,Timurids, and the tribal Turkic federations of theAk Koyunlu and theKara Koyunlu ruled over the Armenians.
Early modern history
Persis, Parthia, Armenia. Rest Fenner, published in 1835.
Armenia, Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Assyria with Adjacent Regions, Karl von Spruner, published in 1865.
From the early 16th century, bothWestern Armenia andEastern Armenia fell under IranianSafavid rule.[109][110] Owing to the century long Turco-Iranian geo-political rivalry that would last in Western Asia, significant parts of the region were frequently fought over between the two rivalling empires. From the mid 16th century with thePeace of Amasya, and decisively from the first half of the 17th century with theTreaty of Zuhab until the first half of the 19th century,[111] Eastern Armenia was ruled by the successive Iranian Safavid,Afsharid andQajar empires, while Western Armenia remained underOttoman rule. In the late 1820s, the parts of historic Armenia under Iranian control centering onYerevan andLake Sevan (all of Eastern Armenia) were incorporated into theRussian Empire followingIran's forced ceding of the territories after its loss in theRusso-Persian War (1826-1828) and the outcomingTreaty of Turkmenchay.[112] Western Armenia however, remained in Ottoman hands.
Modern history
Theethnic cleansing of Armenians during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is widely considered agenocide, resulting in an estimated 1.2 million victims.[113][114] The first wave of persecution was in the years 1894 to 1896, the second one culminating in the events of theArmenian genocide in 1915 and 1916. WithWorld War I in progress, the Ottoman Empire accused the (Christian) Armenians as liable to ally withImperial Russia, and used it as a pretext to deal with the entire Armenian population as an enemy within their empire.
Governments of the Republic of Turkey since that time have consistently rejected charges of genocide, typically arguing either that those Armenians who died were simply in the way of a war, or that killings of Armenians were justified by their individual or collective support for the enemies of the Ottoman Empire. Passage of legislation in various foreign countries, condemning the persecution of the Armenians as genocide, has often provoked diplomatic conflict. (Seerecognition of the Armenian genocide)
Armenian presence in the early 20th century: >50% 25–50% <25%
Armenian settlement area today.
Armenians in uyezds of the Russian Empire according to the 1897 censusArmenians in uyezds of the Russian Empire according to the 1916 census
Armenians are indigenous to theArmenian Highlands and their presence in this region dates back 4,000 years. According to legend,Hayk, the patriarch and founder of the Armenian nation, led Armenians to victory overBel ofBabylon and settled in the Armenian Highland.[115] Today, with a population of 3.5 million (although more recent estimates place the population closer to 2.9 million), they constitute an overwhelming majority in Armenia, Armenians in the diaspora informally refer to them asHayastantsis (Armenian:հայաստանցի), meaning those that are from Armenia (that is, those born and raised in Armenia). They, as well as the Armenians of Iran and Russia, speak the Eastern dialect of the Armenian language. The country itself is secular as a result of Soviet domination, but most of its citizens identify themselves as Apostolic Armenian Christian.
Within the diasporan Armenian community, there is an unofficial classification of the differentkinds of Armenians. For example, Armenians who originate from Iran are referred to asParskahay (Armenian:պարսկահայ), while Armenians from Lebanon are usually referred to asLipananahay (Armenian:լիբանանահայ). Armenians of the Diaspora are the primary speakers of theWestern dialect of the Armenian language. This dialect has considerable differences with Eastern Armenian, but speakers of either of the two variations can usually understand each other. Eastern Armenian in the diaspora is primarily spoken in Iran and European countries such as Ukraine, Russia, andGeorgia (where they form a majority in theSamtskhe-Javakheti province). In diverse communities (such as in the United States andCanada) where many different kinds of Armenians live together, there is a tendency for the different groups to cluster together.
Before Christianity, Armenians adhered toArmenian Indo-European native religion: a type of indigenous polytheism that pre-dated theUrartu period but which subsequently adopted several Greco-Roman and Iranian religious characteristics.[118][119]
In 301 AD, Armenia adopted Christianity as a state religion, becoming the first state to do so.[51] The claim is primarily based on the fifth-century work ofAgathangelos titled "The History of the Armenians."Agathangelos witnessed at first hand the baptism of the Armenian KingTrdat III (c. 301/314 A.D.) by St.Gregory the Illuminator.[120] Trdat III decreed Christianity was the state religion.[121]
Armenia established a Church that still exists independently of both theCatholic and theEastern Orthodox churches, having become so in 451 AD as a result of its stance regarding theCouncil of Chalcedon.[51] Today this church is known as theArmenian Apostolic Church, which is a part of theOriental Orthodox communion, not to be confused with theEastern Orthodox communion. During its later political eclipses, Armenia depended on the church to preserve and protect its unique identity. The original location of the Armenian Catholicosate is Echmiadzin. However, the continuous upheavals, which characterized the political scenes of Armenia, made the political power move to safer places. The Church center moved as well to different locations together with the political authority. Therefore, it eventually moved toCilicia as theHoly See of Cilicia.[122]
Armenia has, at times, constituted a Christian "island" in a mostlyMuslim region. There are, however, a minority of ethnic Armenian Muslims, known asHamshenis andCrypto-Armenians, although the former are often regarded as a distinct group or subgroup. In the late tsarist Caucasus, individual conversions of Muslims, Yazidis, Jews, and Assyrians into Armenian Christianity have been documented.[123] Thehistory of the Jews in Armenia dates back over 2,000 years. TheArmenian Kingdom of Cilicia had close ties to EuropeanCrusader States. Later on, the deteriorating situation in the region led the bishops of Armenia to elect a Catholicos in Etchmiadzin, the original seat of the Catholicosate. In 1441, a new Catholicos was elected in Etchmiadzin in the person of Kirakos Virapetsi, while Krikor Moussapegiants preserved his title as Catholicos of Cilicia. Therefore, since 1441, there have been two Catholicosates in the Armenian Church with equal rights and privileges, and with their respective jurisdictions. The primacy of honor of the Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin has always been recognized by the Catholicosate of Cilicia.[124]
While the Armenian Apostolic Church remains the most prominent church in the Armenian community throughout the world, Armenians (especially in the diaspora) subscribe to any number of other Christian denominations. These include theArmenian Catholic Church (which follows its own liturgy but recognizes theRoman Catholic Pope), theArmenian Evangelical Church, which started as a reformation in the Mother church but later broke away, and theArmenian Brotherhood Church, which was born in the Armenian Evangelical Church, but later broke apart from it. There are other numerous Armenian churches belonging to Protestant denominations of all kinds.
Through the ages many Armenians have collectively belonged to other faiths or Christian movements, including thePaulicians which is a form of Gnostic and Manichaean Christianity. Paulicians sought to restore the pure Christianity of Paul and in c.660 founded the first congregation in Kibossa, Armenia.
Another example is theTondrakians, who flourished in medieval Armenia between the early 9th century and 11th century. Tondrakians advocated the abolishment of the church, denied the immortality of the soul, did not believe in an afterlife, supported property rights for peasants, and equality between men and women.
TheOrthodox Armenians or the Chalcedonian Armenians in the Byzantine Empire were called Iberians ("Georgians") or "Greeks". A notable Orthodox "Iberian" Armenian was the Byzantine GeneralGregory Pakourianos. The descendants of these Orthodox and Chalcedonic Armenians are theHayhurum of Greece and Catholic Armenians of Georgia.
Armenian is a sub-branch of theIndo-European family, and with some 8 million speakers one of the smallest surviving branches, comparable toAlbanian or the somewhat more widely spokenGreek, with which it may be connected (seeGraeco-Armenian). Today, that branch has just one language – Armenian.
Five million Eastern Armenian speakers live in the Caucasus, Russia, and Iran, and approximately two to three million people in the rest of theArmenian diaspora speak Western Armenian. According to US Census figures, there are 300,000 Americans who speak Armenian at home. It is in fact the twentieth most commonly spoken language in the United States, having slightly fewer speakers thanHaitian Creole, and slightly more thanNavajo.
A 14th-century Armenian illuminated manuscript
Armenian literature dates back to 400 AD, when Mesrop Mashtots first invented theArmenian alphabet. This period of time is often viewed as theGolden Age of Armenian literature. Early Armenian literature was written by the "father of Armenian history",Moses of Chorene, who authoredThe History of Armenia. The book covers the time-frame from the formation of the Armenian people to the fifth century AD. The nineteenth century beheld a great literary movement that was to give rise to modern Armenian literature. This period of time, during which Armenian culture flourished, is known as the Revival period (Zartonki sherchan). The Revivalist authors ofConstantinople andTiflis, almost identical to the Romanticists of Europe, were interested in encouraging Armenian nationalism. Most of them adopted the newly created Eastern or Western variants of the Armenian language depending on the targeted audience, and preferred them over classical Armenian (grabar). This period ended after theHamidian massacres, when Armenians experienced turbulent times. As Armenian history of the 1920s and of the Genocide came to be more openly discussed, writers likeParuyr Sevak,Gevork Emin,Silva Kaputikyan andHovhannes Shiraz began a new era of literature.
The first Armenian churches were built on the orders ofSt. Gregory the Illuminator, and were often built on top of pagan temples, and imitated some aspects of Armenian pre-Christian architecture.[125]
Classical and Medieval Armenian Architecture is divided into four separate periods.The first Armenian churches were built between the 4th and 7th century, beginning when Armenia converted to Christianity, and ending with the Arab invasion of Armenia. The early churches were mostly simplebasilicas, but some with side apses. By the fifth century the typical cupola cone in the center had become widely used. By the seventh century, centrally planned churches had been built and a more complicatedniched buttress and radiatingHrip'simé style had formed. By the time of the Arab invasion, most of what we now know as classical Armenian architecture had formed.
From the 9th to 11th century, Armenian architecture underwent a revival under the patronage of theBagratid Dynasty with a great deal of building done in the area ofLake Van, this included both traditional styles and new innovations. Ornately carved ArmenianKhachkars were developed during this time.[126] Many new cities and churches were built during this time, including a new capital atLake Van and a new Cathedral onAkdamar Island to match. TheCathedral of Ani was also completed during this dynasty. It was during this time that the first major monasteries, such asHaghpat andHaritchavank were built. This period was ended by theSeljuk invasion.
Armenian art is the unique form of art developed over the last five millennia in which theArmenian people lived on theArmenian Highland. Armenian architecture and miniature painting have dominated Armenian art and have shown consistent development over the centuries.[127] Other forms of Armenian art include sculpture, fresco, mosaic, ceramic, metalwork, engraving, and textiles, especiallyArmenian carpets.
Prehistoric Armenia was home to theUrartu culture in theIron Age, notable for its early metal sculptures, often of animals. The region was, as later, often contested by the large empires holding the nearby regions ofPersia,Mesopotamia andAnatolia. The Armenians adopted Christianity very early, and developed their own version ofEastern Christian art, with much use oficons,Armenian miniatures in books, and the very originalarchitecture of their churches and monasteries. A distinctive Armenian feature, which may have influenced theMedieval art of Europe, was the popularity from early on of figurativerelief carvings on the outside of churches, unknown inByzantium.
Armenians specialized in arts and crafts such ascarpet-weaving.
TheArmenian Taraz (Armenian:տարազ,taraz;[c]), also known as Armenian traditional clothing, reflects a rich cultural tradition. Wool and fur were used by the Armenians along with the cotton that was grown in the fertile valleys. InUrartu, silk imported from China was used by royalty. Later, Armenians cultivated silkworms and produced their own silk.[128][129]
Armenian theater (Armenian:Հայկական թատրոն,romanized: Haykakan t’atron) dates to beforeRoman times and is one of the oldestEurasian theatrical traditions.[130] AlongsideGreek andRoman theatres, it stands as one of the world's most ancient theatres.[131][130] The ancient and beloved form oftheatrical art is lyrical (profound) drama, which exerted its influence on thefolklore of theNear East,Balkan, andApennine peoples. Within this cultural context, Armenian folk and mystical drama, characterized by itsdance elements, also took shape. Although the ancient theatre system hasn't been preserved, it has left its linguistic marks.
Many types of sports are played in Armenia, among the most popular beingfootball,chess,boxing, basketball,ice hockey,sambo,wrestling,weightlifting, and volleyball.[132] Since independence, the Armenian government has been actively rebuilding its sports program in the country.
During Soviet rule, Armenian athletes rose to prominence winning plenty of medals and helping theUSSR win the medal standings at the Olympics on numerous occasions. The first medal won by an Armenian in modern Olympic history was byHrant Shahinyan, who won two golds and two silvers in gymnastics at the1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. To highlight the level of success of Armenians in the Olympics, Shahinyan was quoted as saying:
"Armenian sportsmen had to outdo their opponents by several notches for the shot at being accepted into any Soviet team. But those difficulties notwithstanding, 90 percent of Armenian athletes on Soviet Olympic teams came back with medals."[133]
Armenians have also been successful in chess, which is the most popular mind sport in Armenia. Some of the most prominent chess players in the world are Armenian such asTigran Petrosian andLevon Aronian.Garry Kasparov is half-Armenian through his mother. As a nation, Armenia won theWorld Champion in 2011 and theWorld Chess Olympiad on three occasions.[134]
Armenians have also been successful in weightlifting andwrestling, the latter having been a successful sport in the Olympics for Armenia. At the1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta,Armen Nazaryan won the gold in the Men'sGreco-Roman Flyweight (52 kg) category andArmen Mkrtchyan won the silver in Men'sFreestyle Paperweight (48 kg) category, securing Armenia's first two medals in its Olympic history. There are also successful Armenians inboxing:Arthur Abraham andVic Darchinyan.
Armenian music is a mix of indigenous folk music, perhaps best-represented byDjivan Gasparyan's well-knownduduk music, as well as light pop, and extensiveChristian music.
Instruments like the duduk, thedhol, thezurna and thekanun are commonly found in Armenian folk music. Artists such asSayat Nova are famous due to their influence in the development of Armenian folk music. One of the oldest types of Armenian music is theArmenian chant which is the most common kind of religious music in Armenia. Many of these chants are ancient in origin, extending to pre-Christian times, while others are relatively modern, including several composed by Saint Mesrop Mashtots, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet. While underSoviet rule, Armenian classical music composerAram Khatchaturian became internationally well known for his music, for various ballets and theSabre Dance from his composition for the balletGayane.
The Armenian genocide caused widespread emigration that led to the settlement of Armenians in various countries in the world. Armenians kept to their traditions and certain diasporans rose to fame with their music. In the post-Genocide Armenian community of the United States, the so-called "kef" style Armenian dance music, using Armenian and Middle Eastern folk instruments (often electrified/amplified) and some western instruments, was popular. This style preserved the folk songs and dances ofWestern Armenia, and many artists also played the contemporary popular songs of Turkey and other Middle Eastern countries from which the Armenians emigrated.Richard Hagopian is perhaps the most famous artist of the traditional "kef" style and the Vosbikian Band was notable in the 40s and 50s for developing their own style of "kef music" heavily influenced by the popular AmericanBig Band Jazz of the time. Later, stemming from the Middle Eastern Armenian diaspora and influenced by Continental European (especially French) pop music, the Armenian pop music genre grew to fame in the 60s and 70s with artists such asAdiss Harmandian andHarout Pamboukjian performing to the Armenian diaspora and Armenia. Also with artists such asSirusho, performing pop music combined with Armenian folk music in today's entertainment industry. Other Armenian diasporans that rose to fame in classical or international music circles are world-renownedFrench-Armenian singer and composerCharles Aznavour, pianistSahan Arzruni, prominent opera sopranos such asHasmik Papian and more recentlyIsabel Bayrakdarian andAnna Kasyan. Certain Armenians settled to sing non-Armenian tunes such as the heavy metal bandSystem of a Down (which nonetheless often incorporates traditional Armenian instrumentals and styling into their songs) or pop starCher (whose father was Armenian). Ruben Hakobyan (Ruben Sasuntsi) is a well recognized Armenian ethnographic and patriotic folk singer who has achieved widespread national recognition due to his devotion to Armenian folk music and exceptional talent. In the Armenian diaspora,Armenian Revolutionary Songs are popular with the youth.[citation needed] These songs encourage Armenian patriotism and are generally about Armenian history and national heroes.
Carpet-weaving is historically a major traditional profession for the majority ofArmenian women, including many Armenian families. Prominent Karabakh carpet weavers there were men too. The oldest extantArmenian carpet from the region, referred to asArtsakh (see alsoKarabakh carpet) during the medieval era, is from the village of Banants (nearGandzak) and dates to the early 13th century.[135] The first time that the Armenian word for carpet,kork, was used in historical sources was in a 1242–1243 Armenian inscription on the wall of the Kaptavan Church in Artsakh.[136]
Common themes and patterns found on Armenian carpets were the depiction of dragons and eagles. They were diverse in style, rich in color and ornamental motifs, and were even separated in categories depending on what sort of animals were depicted on them, such asartsvagorgs (eagle-carpets),vishapagorgs (dragon-carpets) andotsagorgs (serpent-carpets).[136] The rug mentioned in the Kaptavan inscriptions is composed of three arches, "covered with vegatative ornaments", and bears an artistic resemblance to theilluminated manuscripts produced in Artsakh.[136]
The art of carpet weaving was in addition intimately connected to the making of curtains as evidenced in a passage byKirakos Gandzaketsi, a 13th-century Armenian historian from Artsakh, who praised Arzu-Khatun, the wife of regional prince Vakhtang Khachenatsi, and her daughters for their expertise and skill in weaving.[137]
Armenian carpets were also renowned by foreigners who traveled to Artsakh; the Arab geographer and historianAl-Masudi noted that, among other works of art, he had never seen such carpets elsewhere in his life.[138]
Khorovats, an Armenian-styled barbecue, is arguably the favorite Armenian dish.Lavash is a very popular Armenian flat bread, and Armenian paklava is a popular dessert made from filo dough. Other famous Armenian foods include thekabob (a skewer of marinated roasted meat and vegetables), various dolmas (minced lamb, or beef meat and rice wrapped in grape leaves, cabbage leaves, or stuffed into hollowed vegetables), andpilaf, a rice dish. Also,ghapama, a rice-stuffed pumpkin dish, and many different salads are popular in Armenian culture. Fruits play a large part in the Armenian diet.Apricots (Prunus armeniaca, also known asArmenian Plum) have been grown in Armenia for centuries and have a reputation for having an especially good flavor.Peaches are popular as well, as are grapes,figs,pomegranates, and melons. Preserves are made from many fruits, including cornelian cherries, young walnuts, sea buckthorn, mulberries, sour cherries, and many others.
TheArmenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) founded in 1906 and the largest Armenian non-profit organization in the world, with educational, cultural and humanitarian projects on all continents
TheArmenian Revolutionary Federation, founded in 1890. It is generally referred to as theDashnaktsutyun, which means 'federation' in Armenian. The ARF is the strongest worldwide Armenian political organization and the only diasporan Armenian organization with a significant political presence inArmenia.
Hamazkayin, an Armenian cultural and educational society founded inCairo in 1928, and responsible for the founding of Armenian secondary schools and institutions of higher education in several countries
TheArmenian Catholic Church, representing small communities of Armeno-Catholics in different countries around the world, as well as important monastic and cultural institutions inVenice andVienna
Homenetmen, anArmenian Scouting and athletic organization founded in 1910 with a worldwide membership of about 25,000
A 2012 study found that haplogroups R1b, J2, and T were the most notable haplogroups among Armenians.[139]
MtDNA
Most notable mtDNA haplogroups among the Armenian samples are H, U, T, J, K and X while the rest of remaining Mtdna of the Armenians are HV, I, X, W, R0 and N.[140]
Dennis J.D. Sandole (24 January 2007).Peace and Security in the Postmodern World: The OSCE and Conflict Resolution. Routledge. p. 182.ISBN9781134145713.The nearly 3 million Armenians in Armenia (and 3–4 million in the Armenian Diaspora worldwide) 'perceive' the nearly 8 million Azerbaijanis in Azerbaijan as 'Turks.'
McGoldrick, Monica; Giordano, Joe; Garcia-Preto, Nydia, eds. (18 August 2005).Ethnicity and Family Therapy, Third Edition (3 ed.). Guilford Press. p. 439.ISBN9781606237946.The impact of such a horror on a group who presently number approximately 6 million, worldwide, is incalculable.
Arthur G. Sharp (15 September 2011).The Everything Guide to the Middle East: Understand the people, the politics, and the culture of this conflicted region. Adams Media. p. 137.ISBN9781440529122.Since the newly independent Republic of Armenia was declared in 1991, nearly 4 million of the world's 6 million Armenians have been living on the eastern edge of their Middle Eastern homeland.
Von Voss, Huberta (2007).Portraits of Hope: Armenians in the Contemporary World. New York: Berghahn Books. p. xxv.ISBN9781845452575....there are some 8 million Armenians in the world...
Freedman, Jeri (2008).The Armenian genocide. New York: Rosen Publishing Group. p. 52.ISBN9781404218253.In contrast to its population of 3.2 million, approximately 8 million Armenians live in other countries of the world, including large communities in the America and Russia.
Guntram H. Herb, David H. Kaplan (2008).Nations and Nationalism: A Global Historical Overview: A Global Historical Overview. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 1705.ISBN9781851099085.A nation of some 8 million people, about 3 million of whom live in the newly independent post-Soviet state, Armenians are constantly battling not to lose their distinct culture, identity and the newly established statehood.
Robert A. Saunders; Vlad Strukov (2010).Historical dictionary of the Russian Federation. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 50.ISBN9780810854758.
Philander, S. George (2008).Encyclopedia of global warming and climate change. Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 77.ISBN9781412958783.An estimated 60 percent of the total 8 million Armenians worldwide live outside the country...
Robert A. Saunders; Vlad Strukov (2010).Historical dictionary of the Russian Federation. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 51.ISBN9780810874602.Worldwide, there are more than 8 million Armenians; 3.2 million reside in the Republic of Armenia.
^[1]Archived 21 November 2018 at theWayback Machine հոկտեմբերի 12-21-ը Հայաստանի Հանրապետությունումանցկացված մարդահամարի արդյունքները (The results of the census conducted in October 2011 in the Republic of Armenia). pp. 6–7.(in Armenian)
^Basyurt, Erhan (26 December 2005)."Anneannem bir Ermeni'ymiş! [My Grandmother is Armenian]".Aksiyon (in Turkish). Archived fromthe original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved10 November 2013.300 bin rakamının abartılı olduğunu düşünmüyorum. Bence daha da fazladır. Ama, bu konu maalesef akademik bir çabaya dönüşmemiş. Keşke akademisyen olsaydım ve sırf bu konu üzerinde bir çalışma yapsaydım.
^Canada National Household Survey, Statistics Canada, 2021,archived from the original on 21 December 2022, retrieved20 December 2022. Of those, 38,010 reported single and 30,835 mixed Armenian ancestry.
^"Armenian Diaspora in Spain".Embassy of Armenia to Spain. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia. Archived fromthe original on 31 March 2016. Retrieved7 April 2016.
^"Bulgaria".Office of the High Commissioner for Diaspora Affairs.Archived from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved20 June 2023.
^"Israel".The Office of the High Commissioner for Diaspora Affairs.Archived from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved5 May 2023.
^Hewsen, Robert H. "The Geography of Armenia" inThe Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century.Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 1–17
^abRichard G. Hovannisian,The Armenian people from ancient to modern times: the fifteenth century to the twentieth century, Volume 2, p. 421, Palgrave Macmillan, 1997.
^Davis, Joyce M. (July 1992)."Jerusalem's Armenian Quarter".ONE Magazine. Catholic Near East Welfare Association.Archived from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved21 June 2023.
^"Χαλύβοισι πρὸς νότον Ἀρμένιοι ὁμουρέουσι (The Armenians border on theChalybes to the south)".Chahin, Mark (2001).The Kingdom of Armenia. London:Routledge. pp. fr. 203.ISBN978-0-7007-1452-0.
^"Xenophon".Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved26 February 2025.
^Armen Petrosyan.The Indo-European and Ancient Near Eastern Sources of the Armenian Epic.Journal of Indo-European Studies. Institute for the Study of Man. 2002. p. 184.[2]Archived 9 July 2021 at theWayback Machine
^Armen Petrosyan.The Indo-European and Ancient Near Eastern Sources of the Armenian Epic.Journal of Indo-European Studies. Institute for the Study of Man. 2002. pp. 166–167.[3]Archived 9 July 2021 at theWayback Machine
^Martirosyan, Hrach (2010).Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon. Leiden: Brill. pp. 382–385.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, Benjamin W. Fortson, John Wiley and Sons, 2009, p383.
^Hans J. Holm (2011): “Swadesh lists” of Albanian Revisited and Consequences for its position in the Indo-European Languages. The Journal of Indo-European Studies, Volume 39, Number 1&2.
^James P.T. Clackson (2008). "Classical Armenian."The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press. p. 124
^Hrach Martirosyan. The place of Armenian in the Indo-European language family: the relationship with Greek and Indo-Iranian. Journal of Language Relationship • Вопросы языкового родства • 10 (2013) • Pp. 85—137
^Greppin, John A. C.; Diakonoff, I. M. (1991). "Some Effects of the Hurro-Urartian People and Their Languages upon the Earliest Armenians".Journal of the American Oriental Society.111 (4):720–730.doi:10.2307/603403.JSTOR603403.
^Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel, Jean M. Evans,Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.)[4] (2008) pp. 92
^Simonyan, Hakob Y. (2012)."New Discoveries at Verin Naver, Armenia".Backdirt (The Puzzle of the Mayan Calendar). The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA:110–113.Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved5 August 2019.
^Thomas Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)|Vyacheslav V. Ivanov,The Early History of Indo-European Languages, March 1990, p. 110.
^Reich, David (2018).Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
^Damgaard, Peter de Barros (2018).The First Horse herders and the Impact of Early Bronze Age Steppe expansions into Asia.
^Wang, Chuan-Chao (2018),The genetic prehistory of the Greater Caucasus
^Vahan Kurkjian, "History of Armenia", Michigan, 1968,History of Armenia by Vahan KurkjianArchived 27 May 2012 atarchive.today; Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, v. 12, Yerevan 1987; Artak Movsisyan, "Sacred Highland: Armenia in the spiritual conception of the Near East", Yerevan, 2000; Martiros Kavoukjian, "The Genesis of Armenian People", Montreal, 1982
^Curtis, John (November 2003). "The Achaemenid Period in Northern Iraq". L'archéologie de l'empire achéménide (Paris, France): 12.
^Hawkins, J. D. (1972). "Building Inscriptions of Carchemish: The Long Wall of Sculpture and Great Staircase".Anatolian Studies.22:87–114.doi:10.2307/3642555.JSTOR3642555.S2CID191397893.
^Redgate, A. E. (2007). "Reviewed work: The Pre-History of the Armenians, Gabriel Soultanian".Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.70 (1):173–175.doi:10.1017/S0041977X07000195.JSTOR40378911.S2CID163000249.
^"The conversion of Armenia to Christianity was probably the most crucial step in its history. It turned Armenia sharply away from its Iranian past and stamped it for centuries with an intrinsic character as clear to the native population as to those outside its borders, who identified Armenia almost at once as the first state to adopt Christianity". (Nina Garsoïan inArmenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, ed. R.G. Hovannisian, Palgrave Macmillan, 1997, Volume 1, p.81).
^traditionally dated to 301 followingMikayel Chamchian (1784). 314 is the date favored by mainstream scholarship, so Nicholas Adontz (1970), p.82, following the research of Ananian, and SeibtThe Christianization of Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Albania) (2002).
^L. M. Vardanyan, G. G. Sarkisyan, A. E. Ter-Sarkisyants (2012).Armenians / otv. ed. Institute of Archeology and Ethnography ofNAS RA. pp. 247–274.ISBN978-5-02-037563-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^abNishan Parlakian; S. Peter Cowe (2001).Modern Armenian drama: an anthology. Columbia University Press. p. ix-x.ISBN978-0-231-11630-5.
^Гоян, Георг (1952).2000 лет армянского театра. Театр древней Армении [2000 years of Armenian theater. Theater of Ancient Armenia] (in Russian) (Т. 1. ed.). Москва: Государственное издательство «Искусство». p. 86.
^(in Armenian)Kirakos Gandzaketsi.Պատմություն Հայոց (History of Armenia). Yerevan, Armenian SSR:Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1961, p. 216, as cited in Hakobyan.Medieval Art of Artsakh, p. 84, note 18.
^Ulubabyan, Bagrat A. (1975).Խաչենի իշխանությունը, X-XVI դարերում (The Principality of Khachen, From the 10th to 16th Centuries) (in Armenian). Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences. p. 267.
Hovannisian, Richard G., ed. (September 1997), The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times , vol. II – Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, New York: St. Martin's Press,ISBN0-312-10168-6
Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, "Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin", Nature, 426, 435–439 (2003)
George A. Bournoutian,A Concise History of the Armenian People (Mazda, 2003, 2004).
Ayvazyan, Hovhannes (2003).Հայ Սփյուռք հանրագիտարան [Encyclopedia of Armenian Diaspora] (in Armenian). Vol. 1. Yerevan: Armenian Encyclopedia publishing.ISBN978-5-89700-020-3.
TheUCLA conference series titled "Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces" is organized by the Holder of the Armenian Educational Foundation Chair in Modern Armenian History. The conference proceedings are edited byRichard G. Hovannisian. Published in Costa Mesa, CA, by Mazda Publishers, they are:
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