| Arete | |
|---|---|
Goddess of excellence and virtue | |
| Member of ThePraxidicae | |
 Statue of Arete inCelsus' Library inEphesus, 2nd century AD | |
| Gender | Female |
| Genealogy | |
| Parents | Praxidice andSoter |
| Siblings | Homonoia |
| Equivalents | |
| Roman | Virtus |
Arete (Ancient Greek:ἀρετή,romanized: aretḗ) is aconcept inancient Greek thought that refers to "excellence" of any kind[1]—especially a person or thing's "full realization of potential or inherent function."[2] The term may also refer to excellence in "moral virtue."[1]
The concept was also occasionally personified as a minor goddess,Arete (not to be confused with the mythological QueenArete), who, together with sisterHomonoia, formed thePraxidikai ("Exacters of Justice").
In its earliest appearance inGreek, this notion of excellence was bound up with the notion of thefulfillment of purpose or function: living up to one's potential. A person ofarete is of the highest effectiveness; such a person uses all of their faculties—strength,bravery, andwit—to achieve real results. In theHomeric world,arete involves all of the abilities and potentialities available to humans. Though particularly associated with "manly" qualities,[1] the Homeric usage of the term was not necessarily gender-specific, as Homer applied the term to both theGreek andTrojan heroes as well as major female figures, such asPenelope, the wife of Greek heroOdysseus. In theHomeric poems,arete is frequently associated with bravery, but more often with effectiveness.
In some contexts,arete is explicitly linked with human knowledge, where the expressions "virtue is knowledge" and "arete is knowledge" are used interchangeably. In this sense, the highest human potential is knowledge, and all other human abilities derive from this central capacity. Ifarete is knowledge, the highest human knowledge isknowledge about knowledge itself. In this light, the theoretical study of human knowledge, whichAristotle called "contemplation", is the highest human ability and happiness.[3]
Theancient Greeks applied the termarete (ἀρετή) to anything: for example, the excellence of a chimney, the excellence of a bull for breeding, and the excellence of a man. The meaning of the word changes depending on what it describes since everything has its own excellence; thearete of a man is different from thearete of a horse. This way of thinking originates fromPlato, where it can be seen in theAllegory of the Cave.[4] In particular, thearistocratic class was presumed, essentially by definition, to be exemplary ofarete:
The root of the word is the same asaristos, the word which shows superlative ability and superiority, andaristos was constantly used in the plural to denote thenobility.[5]
By the 5th and 4th centuries BCE,arete as applied to men had developed to include quieter virtues, such asdikaiosyne (justice) andsophrosyne (self-restraint). Though Plato tried to produce amoral philosophy that incorporated this new usage, it was in theNicomachean Ethics ofAristotle that the doctrine ofarete found its fullest flowering. Aristotle'sDoctrine of the Mean is a paradigm example of his thinking.[6]
Aristotle deliberated on the various goals of education: including practical skills,arete, and theory.[7][8]: 149–152 Educating towardsarete means boys would be educated towards things that are useful in life. However, there is no agreement about what constitutesarete, which leads to disagreement about how to train students forarete.[8]: 150 To say thatarete has a common definition of excellence or fulfillment may be an overstatement simply because it was very difficult to pinpointarete, much less the proper ways to go about obtaining it.
InHomer'sIliad andOdyssey,arete mainly describes heroes and nobles and their mobile dexterity, with special reference tostrength andcourage, though it is not limited to this.[1] For instance, the excellence of the gods generally included their power, but, in theOdyssey (13.42),Odysseus asked the gods to grant thePhaeaciansarete, which here is generally translated as prosperity.[9]Penelope'sarete, as another example, relates toco-operation, for which she is praised byAgamemnon. Though associated with "manly" qualities,[1] the Homeric usage of the term was not necessarily gender-specific, as Homer applied the term to major female figures as well as theGreek andTrojan heroes.
TheOdyssey states that "far-sounding Zeus takes away half the arete of a man, when the day of slavery takes hold of him."[10]
In theIliad, the way Homer describesAchilles is an example ofarete.Arete is associated with the goodness and prowess of a warrior. Debra Hawhee points out that the norms and practices ofAthenian virtuosity "operate within the politics of reputation, whose normative poles are honor and shame."[11] Dying in battle or securing a victory in theOlympic Games were consideredagathos ("good") and, hence, deserving oftimê ("honor"). So, not only is Achilles a brave and brilliant warrior but also, from the outset, he is destined to die in battle atTroy with the utmost glory—a guarantor ofarete.[11]
According toBernard Knox's notes in theRobert Fagles' translation ofThe Odyssey, "arete" is also associated witharaomai, the Greek word for "pray".[12]
Arete was occasionally personified as a goddess, the sister ofHomonoia (goddess of concord, unanimity, and oneness of mind), and the daughter ofPraxidike (goddess of justice). Arete and Homonoia were known jointly as thePraxidikai ("Exacters of Justice"). As with many minor Greek deities, there is little or no real mythical background to Arete, who is used at most as a personification ofvirtue.
The only surviving story involving Arete was told in the 5th century BCE by thesophistProdicus. Known as "Hercules at the crossroads", it concerns the early life of theheroHeracles. At a crossroads, Arete appeared to Heracles as a young maiden and offered him glory and a life of struggle against evil; her counterpartKakia (κακία,'badness') offered him wealth and pleasure. Heracles chose to follow the path of Arete.[13]
This story was later used byChristian writers, such asMethodius of Olympus,Justin Martyr,Clement of Alexandria, andBasil of Caesarea.
Arete was also used byPlato in his discussion of athletic training and the education of young boys.[8] It was commonly believed that the mind, body, and soul each had to be developed for a man to live a life ofarete. This led to the thought that athletics had to be present in order to obtainarete. Athletics did not need to occupy one's life, but could be used to exercise the body into the right condition forarete, just as the mind and soul would be exercised by other means.[8]
Arete is a significant part of thepaideia of ancient Greeks: the training of the boy to manhood. This training inarete includedphysical training, for which the Greeks developed thegymnasion; mental training, which includedoratory,rhetoric, andbasic sciences; andspiritual training, which includedmusic and what is calledvirtue.
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