Ares (/ˈɛəriːz/;Ancient Greek:Ἄρης,Árēs[árɛːs]) is theGreek god ofwar and courage. He is one of theTwelve Olympians, and the son ofZeus andHera. Many Greeks were ambivalent towards him. He embodies the physical valor necessary for success in war but can also personify sheer brutality and bloodlust, in contrast to his sisterAthena, whose martial functions include military strategy and generalship. An association with Ares endows places, objects, and other deities with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality.
Although Ares's name shows his origins asMycenaean, his reputation for savagery was thought by some to reflect his likely origins as a Thracian deity. Some cities in Greece and several in Asia Minor held annual festivals to bind and detain him as their protector. In parts of Asia Minor, he was an oracular deity. Still further away from Greece, theScythians were said to ritually kill one in a hundred prisoners of war as an offering to their equivalent of Ares. The later belief that ancient Spartans had offered human sacrifice to Ares may owe more to mythical prehistory, misunderstandings, and reputation than to reality.
Although there are many literary allusions to Ares's love affairs and children, he has a limited role inGreek mythology. When he does appear, he is often humiliated. In theTrojan War,Aphrodite, protector of Troy, persuades Ares to take the Trojans' side. The Trojans lose, while Ares's sister Athena helps the Greeks to victory. Most famously, when the craftsman-godHephaestus discovers his wifeAphrodite is having an affair with Ares, he traps the lovers in a net and exposes them to the ridicule of the other gods.
Ares's nearest counterpart in Roman religion isMars, who was given a more important and dignified place inancient Roman religion as ancestral protector of the Roman people and state. During theHellenization ofLatin literature, the myths of Ares werereinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars, and in laterWestern art and literature, the mythology of the two figures became virtually indistinguishable.
Names
The etymology of the nameAres is traditionally connected with theGreek wordἀρή (arē), theIonic form of theDoricἀρά (ara), "bane, ruin, curse, imprecation".[1]Walter Burkert notes that "Ares is apparently an ancient abstract noun meaning throng of battle, war."[2]R. S. P. Beekes has suggested aPre-Greek origin of the name.[3] The earliest attested form of the name is theMycenaean Greek𐀀𐀩,a-re, written in theLinear B syllabic script.[4][5][6]
Theadjectivalepithet,Areios ("warlike") was frequently appended to the names of other gods when they took on a warrior aspect or became involved in warfare:Zeus Areios,Athena Areia, evenAphrodite Areia ("Aphrodite within Ares" or "feminine Ares"), who was warlike, fully armoured and armed, partnered withAthena inSparta, and represented atKythira's temple toAphrodite Urania.[7]In theIliad, the wordares is used as acommon noun synonymous with "battle".[2]
In theClassical period, Ares is given the epithetEnyalios, which seems to appear on theMycenaeanKN V 52 tablet as𐀁𐀝𐀷𐀪𐀍,e-nu-wa-ri-jo.[8][9] Enyalios was sometimes identified with Ares and sometimes differentiated from him as another war god with separate cult, even in the same town; Burkert describes them as "doubles almost".[10][11]
In mainland Greece and thePeloponnese, only a few places are known to have had a formal temple and cult of Ares.[17][n 1]Pausanias (2nd century AD) notes an altar to Ares atOlympia,[18] and the moving of aTemple of Ares to theAthenian agora during the reign ofAugustus, essentially rededicating it (2 AD) as aRoman temple to the AugustanMars Ultor.[17] TheAreopagus ("mount of Ares"), a natural rock outcrop in Athens, some distance from the Acropolis, was supposedly where Ares was tried and acquitted by the gods for his revenge-killing ofPoseidon's son,Halirrhothius, who had raped Ares's daughterAlcippe. Its name was used for the court that met there, mostly to investigate and try potential cases of treason.[19]
NumismatistM. Jessop Price states that Ares "typified the traditional Spartan character", but had no important cult in Sparta;[20] and he never occurs on Spartan coins.[21] Pausanias gives two examples of his cult, both of them conjointly with or "within" a warlike Aphrodite, on the Spartan acropolis.[22] Gonzalez observes, in his 2005 survey of Ares's cults in Asia Minor, that cults to Ares on the Greek mainland may have been more common than some sources assert.[23] Wars between Greek states were endemic; war and warriors provided Ares's tribute, and fed his insatiable appetite for battle.[24]
Ares's attributes are instruments of war: a helmet, shield, and sword or spear.[25]Libanius "makes the apple sacred to Ares", but "offers no further comment", nor connections to any aetiological myth. Apples are one of Aphrodite's sacred or symbolic fruits. Littlewood followsArtemidorus claim that to dream of sour apples presages conflict, and lists Ares alongsideEris and the mythological "Apples of Discord".[26]
Chained statues
Gods were immortal but could be bound and restrained, both in mythic narrative and in cult practice. There was an archaicSpartan statue of Ares in chains in the temple ofEnyalios (sometimes regarded as the son of Ares, sometimes as Ares himself), which Pausanias claimed meant that the spirit of war and victory was to be kept in the city.[n 2] The Spartans are known to have ritually bound the images of other deities, includingAphrodite and Artemis (cf Ares and Aphrodite bound by Hephaestus), and in other places there were chained statues of Artemis and Dionysos.[28][29]
Statues of Ares in chains are described in the instructions given by an oracle of the late Hellenistic era to various cities ofPamphylia (in Anatolia) includingSyedra,Lycia andCilicia, places almost perpetually under threat from pirates. Each was told to set up a statue of "bloody, man-slaying Ares" and provide it with an annual festival in which it was ritually bound with iron fetters ("byDike and Hermes") as if a supplicant for justice, put on trial and offered sacrifice. The oracle promises that "thus will he become a peaceful deity for you, once he has driven the enemy horde far from your country, and he will give rise to prosperity much prayed for". This Areskarpodotes ("giver of Fruits") is well attested in Lycia and Pisidia.[30]
Like most Greek deities, Ares was given animal sacrifice; in Sparta, after battle, he was given an ox for a victory by stratagem, or a rooster for victory through onslaught.[31][n 3] The usual recipient of sacrifice before battle was Athena. Reports of historic human sacrifice to Ares in an obscure rite known as theHekatomphonia represent a very long-standing error, repeated through several centuries and well into the modern era.[n 4] Thehekatomphonia was an animal sacrifice to Zeus; it could be offered by any warrior who had personally slain one hundred of the enemy.[n 5][32][33] Pausanias reports that in Sparta, each company of youths sacrificed a puppy to Enyalios before engaging in a hand-to-hand "fight without rules" at the Phoebaeum.[n 6][35] Thechthonic night-time sacrifice of a dog to Enyalios became assimilated to the cult of Ares.[36]Porphyry claims, without detail, that Apollodorus of Athens (circa second century BC) says theSpartans made human sacrifices to Ares, but this may be a reference to mythic pre-history.[37]
Thrace and Scythia
A Thracian god identified byHerodotus (c. 484 –c. 425 BC) as Ares, throughinterpretatio Graeca, was one of three otherwise unnamed deities that Thracian commoners were said to worship. Herodotus recognises and names the other two as "Dionysus" and "Artemis", and claims that the Thracian aristocracy exclusively worshiped "Hermes".[38][39] In Herodotus'sHistories, theScythians worship an indigenous form of Greek Ares, who is otherwise unnamed, but ranked beneathTabiti (whom Herodotus claims as a form ofHestia), Api and Papaios in Scythia's divine hierarchy. His cult object was an iron sword. The "Scythian Ares" was offered blood-sacrifices (or ritual killings) of cattle, horses and "one in every hundred human war-captives", whose blood was used to douse the sword. Statues, and complex platform-altars made of heaped brushwood were devoted to him. This sword-cult, or one very similar, is said to have persisted among theAlans.[40] Some have posited that the "Sword of Mars" in later European history alludes to theHuns having adopted Ares.[41]
Asia Minor
In some parts of Asia Minor, Ares was a prominentoracular deity, something not found in any Hellennic cult to Ares or Roman cult to Mars. Ares was linked in some regions or polities with a local god or cultic hero, and recognised as a higher, more prestigious deity than in mainland Greece. His cults in southern Asia Minor are attested from the 5th century BC and well into the later Roman Imperial era, at 29 different sites, and on over 70 local coin issues.[42] He is sometimes represented on coinage of the region by the "Helmet of Ares" or carrying a spear and a shield, or as a fully armed warrior, sometimes accompanied by a female deity. In what is now western Turkey, the Hellenistic city ofMetropolis built a monumental temple to Ares as the city's protector, not before the 3rd century BC. It is now lost, but the names of some of its priests and priestesses survive, along with the temple's likely depictions on coins of the province.[43]
Crete
A sanctuary of Aphrodite was established atSta Lenika, onCrete, between the cities ofLato andOlus, possibly during theGeometric period. It was rebuilt in the late 2nd century BC as a double-sanctuary to Ares and Aphrodite.[44] Inscriptions record disputes over the ownership of the sanctuary. The names of Ares and Aphrodite appear as witness to sworn oaths, and there is a Victory thanks-offering to Aphrodite, whom Millington believes had capacity as a "warrior-protector acting in the realm of Ares". There were cultic links between the Sta Lenika sanctuary, Knossos and other Cretan states, and perhaps withArgos on the mainland.[45] While the Greek literary and artistic record from both the Archaic and Classical eras connects Ares and Aphrodite as complementary companions and ideal though adulterous lovers, their cult pairing and Aphrodite as warrior-protector is localised to Crete.[46][47]
Aksum
In Africa,Maḥrem, the principal god of thekings of Aksum prior to the 4th century AD, was invoked as Ares in Greek inscriptions. The anonymous king who commissioned theMonumentum Adulitanum in the late 2nd or early 3rd century refers to "my greatest god, Ares, who also begat me, through whom I brought under my sway [various peoples]". The monumental throne celebrating the king's conquests was itself dedicated to Ares.[48] In the early 4th century, the last pagan king of Aksum,Ezana, referred to "the one who brought me forth, the invincible Ares".[49]
Ares was one of theTwelve Olympians in the archaic tradition represented by theIliad andOdyssey. InGreek literature, Ares often represents the physical or violent and untamed aspect of war and is the personification of sheer brutality and bloodlust ("overwhelming, insatiable in battle, destructive, and man-slaughtering", as Burkert puts it), in contrast to his sister, the armoredAthena, whose functions as agoddess of intelligence include military strategy and generalship.[50] An association with Ares endows places and objects with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality;[51] but when Ares does appear in myths, he typically faces humiliation.[52]
In theIliad, Zeus expresses a recurring Greek revulsion toward the god when Ares returns wounded and complaining from thebattlefield at Troy:
Then looking at him darkly Zeus who gathers the clouds spoke to him: "Do not sit beside me and whine, you double-faced liar. To me you are the most hateful of all gods who hold Olympus. Forever quarrelling is dear to your heart, wars and battles. ... And yet I will not long endure to see you in pain, since you are my child, and it was to me that your mother bore you. But were you born of some other god and proved so ruinous long since you would have been dropped beneath the gods of the bright sky."[53]
This ambivalence is expressed also in the Greeks' association of Ares with theThracians, whom they regarded as a barbarous and warlike people.[54]Thrace was considered to be Ares's birthplace and his refuge after the affair withAphrodite was exposed to the general mockery of the other gods.[n 7]
A late 6th-century BC funerary inscription fromAttica emphasizes the consequences of coming under Ares's sway:
Stay and mourn at the tomb of dead Kroisos Whom raging Ares destroyed one day, fighting in the foremost ranks.[55]
Mythology
TheLudovisi Ares, Roman version of a Greek original c. 320 BC, with 17th-century restorations byBernini
In theArgonautica, theGolden Fleece hangs in a grove sacred to Ares, until its theft byJason. The Birds of Ares (Ornithes Areioi) drop feather darts in defense of theAmazons' shrine to Ares, as father of their queen, on a coastal island in theBlack Sea.[57]
Founding of Thebes
Ares plays a central role in thefounding myth ofThebes, as the progenitor of the water-dragon slain byCadmus. The dragon's teeth were sown into the ground as if a crop and sprang up as the fully armoredautochthonicSpartoi. Cadmus placed himself in the god's service for eight years to atone for killing the dragon.[25] To further propitiate Ares, Cadmus marriedHarmonia, a daughter of Ares's union with Aphrodite. In this way, Cadmus harmonized all strife and founded the city of Thebes.[2] In reality, Thebes came to dominateBoeotia's great and fertile plain, which in both history and myth was a battleground for competing polities.[58] According to Plutarch, the plain was anciently described as "The dancing-floor of Ares".[59]
Aphrodite
In Homer'sOdyssey, in the tale sung by the bard in the hall ofAlcinous,[60] the Sun-godHelios once spied Ares and Aphrodite having sex secretly in the hall ofHephaestus, her husband.[61] Helios reported the incident to Hephaestus. Contriving to catch the illicit couple in the act, Hephaestus fashioned a finely-knitted and nearly invisible net with which to snare them. At the appropriate time, this net was sprung, and trapped Ares and Aphrodite locked in very private embrace.[n 8]
But Hephaestus was not satisfied with his revenge, so he invited the Olympian gods and goddesses to view the unfortunate pair. For the sake of modesty, the goddesses demurred, but the male gods went to witness the sight. Some commented on the beauty of Aphrodite, others remarked that they would eagerly trade places with Ares, but all who were present mocked the two. Once the couple was released, the embarrassed Ares returned to his homeland, Thrace, and Aphrodite went to Paphos.[n 8][52]
In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldierAlectryon, who was Ares companion in drinking and even love-making, by his door to warn them of Helios's arrival as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty.[62] Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus. The furious Ares turned the sleepy Alectryon into arooster which now always announces the arrival of the sun in the morning, as a way of apologizing to Ares.[63]
The Chorus ofAeschylus'sSuppliants (written 463 BC) refers to Ares as Aphrodite's "mortal-destroying bedfellow". In theIlliad, Ares helps the Trojans because of his affection for their divine protector, Aphrodite; she thus redirects his innate destructive savagery to her own purposes.[46][47]
Giants
In one archaic myth, related only in theIliad by the goddessDione to her daughter Aphrodite, two chthonic giants, theAloadae, named Otus and Ephialtes, bound Ares in chains and imprisoned him in a bronze urn, where he remained for thirteen months, alunar year. "And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful Eriboea, the young giants' stepmother, had not toldHermes what they had done," she related.[64] In this, [Burkert] suspects "a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month".[65][66] Ares was held screaming and howling in the urn until Hermes rescued him, andArtemis tricked the Aloadae into slaying each other.
InNonnus'sDionysiaca, in the war betweenCronus and Zeus, Ares killed an unnamed giant son ofEchidna who was allied with Cronus, and described as spitting "horrible poison" and having "snaky" feet.[67]
In some versions of theGigantomachy, Ares was the god who killed the giantMimas.[68]
In the 2nd century ADMetamorphoses ofAntoninus Liberalis, when the monstrousTyphon attacked Olympus the gods transformed into animals and fled to Egypt; Ares changed into a fish, the Lepidotus (sacred to the Egyptian war-godAnhur). Liberalis'skoine Greek text is a "completely inartistic" epitome ofNicander's now lostHeteroeumena (2nd century BC).[69][70]
InHomer'sIliad, Ares has no fixed allegiance. He promises Athena and Hera that he will fight for theAchaeans butAphrodite persuades him to side with theTrojans. During the war,Diomedes fightsHector and sees Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes calls for his soldiers to withdraw.[71] Zeus grants Athena permission to drive Ares from the battlefield. Encouraged by Hera and Athena, Diomedes thrusts with his spear at Ares. Athena drives the spear home, and all sides tremble at Ares's cries. Ares flees toMount Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back.[72] Ares overhears that his son Ascalaphus has been killed and wants to change sides again, rejoining the Achaeans for vengeance, disregarding Zeus's order that no Olympian should join the battle. Athena stops him. Later, when Zeus allows the gods to fight in the war again, Ares attacks Athena to avenge his previous injury. Athena overpowers him by striking him with a boulder.[73]
Attendants
Deimos ("Terror" or "Dread") andPhobos ("Fear") are Ares's companions in war,[74] and according toHesiod, are also his children byAphrodite.[75]Eris, the goddess of discord, orEnyo, the goddess of war, bloodshed, and violence, was considered the sister and companion of the violent Ares.[76] In at least one tradition, Enyalius, rather than another name for Ares, was his son by Enyo.[77]
Ares may also be accompanied byKydoimos, the daemon of the din of battle; theMakhai ("Battles"); the "Hysminai" ("Acts of manslaughter");Polemos, a minor spirit of war, or only an epithet of Ares, since it has no specific dominion; and Polemos's daughter,Alala, thegoddess orpersonification of the Greek war-cry, whose name Ares uses as his own war-cry. Ares's sisterHebe ("Youth") also draws baths for him.
Though Ares plays a relatively limited role inGreek mythology as represented in literary narratives, his numerous love affairs and abundant offspring are oftenalluded to.[79]The union of Ares and Aphrodite created the godsEros,Anteros,Phobos,Deimos, andHarmonia. Other versions includeAlcippe as one of their daughters.
Ares had a romantic liaison withEos, thegoddess of the dawn. Aphrodite discovered them, and in anger she cursed Eos with insatiable lust for men.[80]
Cycnus (Κύκνος) ofMacedonia was a mortal son of Ares who tried to build a temple to his father with the skulls and bones of guests and travellers.Heracles fought him and, in one account, killed him. In another account, Ares fought his son's killer but Zeus parted the combatants with a thunderbolt.[81]
By a woman named Teirene he had a daughter namedThrassa, who in turn had a daughter namedPolyphonte. Polyphonte was cursed by Aphrodite to love and mate with a bear, producing two sons,Agrius and Oreius, who were hubristic toward the gods and had a habit of eating their guests. Zeus sentHermes to punish them, and he chose to chop off their hands and feet. Since Polyphonte was descended from him, Ares stopped Hermes, and the two brothers came into an agreement to turn Polyphonte's family into birds instead. Oreius became an eagle owl, Agrius a vulture, and Polyphonte astrix, possibly a small owl, certainly a portent of war; Polyphonte's servant prayed not to become a bird of evil omen and Ares and Hermes fulfilled her wish by choosing the woodpecker for her, a good omen for hunters.[82][83]
Sometimes poets and dramatists recounted ancient traditions, which varied, and sometimes they invented new details; laterscholiasts might draw on either or simply guess.[84][85] Thus whilePhobos andDeimos were regularly described as offspring of Ares, others listed here such asMeleager,Sinope andSolymus were sometimes said to be children of Ares and sometimes given other fathers.
The following is a list of Ares's offspring, by various mothers. Beside each offspring, the earliest source to record the parentage is given, along with the century to which the source dates.
Wall-painting inPompeii, c. 20 BC – 50s AD, showing Mars and Venus. The Roman god of war is depicted as youthful and beardless, reflecting the influence of the Greek Ares.
InRenaissance andNeoclassical works of art, Ares's symbols are a spear and helmet, his animal is a dog, and his bird is thevulture. In literary works of these eras, Ares is replaced by the RomanMars, a romantic emblem of manly valor rather than the cruel and blood-thirsty god of Greek mythology.
^Burkert lists temples at or near Troizen, Geronthrai and Halicarnassus. The Oxford Classical Dictionary adds Argos, Megalopolis, Therapne and Tegea in the Peloponnese, Athens and Erythrae, and Cretan sites Cnossus, Lato, Biannos and perhaps Olus.[10]
^"Opposite this temple [the temple of Hipposthenes] is an old image of Enyalius in fetters. The idea the Lacedaemonians express by this image is the same as the Athenians express by their Wingless Victory; the former think that Enyalius will never run away from them, being bound in the fetters, while the Athenians think that Victory, having no wings, will always remain where she is".[27]
^Hughes is citing Plutarch,Instituta Laconica (trans. Babbit) Loeb, 1931, 25, 238F; "Whenever they overcome their enemies by out-generaling them, they sacrifice a bull to Ares, but when the victory is gained in open conflict, they offer a cock, thus trying to make their leaders habitually not merely fighters but tacticians as well". InThe Life of Agesilaus, 33.4: Plutarch claims that the Spartans thought victory was such ordinary work for them, they only sacrificed a rooster in recognition.
^In theProtrepticus, Clement of Alexandria writes: "Indeed,Aristomenes the Messenian sacrificed 300 men to Zeus ofIthome...[including]Theopompus theLacedaemonian (Spartan) king, a noble victim." The rite was supposedly performed three times by Aristomenes: Plutarch did not find it credible that one man could have slaughtered three hundred. The Spartans claimed that Theopompus had only been wounded
^"Here each company of youths sacrifices a puppy to Enyalius, holding that the most valiant of tame animals is an acceptable victim to the most valiant of the gods. I know of no other Greeks who are accustomed to sacrifice puppies except the people ofColophon; these too sacrifice a puppy, a black bitch, to the Wayside Goddess (Hecate)".[34]
^HomerOdyssey viii. 361; for Ares/Mars and Thrace, seeOvid,Ars Amatoria, book ii.part xi.585, which tells the same tale: "Their captive bodies are, with difficulty, freed, at your plea, Neptune: Venus runs to Paphos: Mars heads for Thrace."; for Ares/Mars and Thrace, see alsoStatius,Thebaid vii. 42
^ab"Odyssey, 8.295".[InRobert Fagles's translation]: ... and the two lovers, free of the bonds that overwhelmed them so, sprang up and away at once, and the Wargod sped Thrace, while Love with her telltale laughter sped to Paphos ...
^abGraf, Fritz (1996). "Ares". In Hornblower & Spawforth (ed.).The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 152.ISBN019866172X.
^Price, M. Jessop. "Greek Imperial Coins: Some Recent Acquisitions by the British Museum." The Numismatic Chronicle, vol. 11, 1971, p. 131.JSTOR42664547. Accessed 4 Aug. 2021.
^Gonzales, Matthew, "The Oracle and Cult of Ares in Asia Minor",Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 45, 2005, p. 282; "...Ares was not so neglected by the cities of mainland Greece as many would have us believe"
^Millington, Alexander T.,War and the Warrior: Functions of Ares in Literature and Cult, University College, London, 2013, pp. 41-44, 230 ff[1]
^Libanius,Progymnasmata,Model Exercises in Greek Prose Composition and Rhetoric, Translated and with an Introduction and Notes by Craig A. Gibson, 2008,[2] p. 263, particularly note 270: and Littlewood, A. R. "The Symbolism of the Apple in Greek and Roman Literature." Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 72 (1968): pp. 161-162.https://doi.org/10.2307/311078.
^Hughes, Dennis D.,Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece, Routledge, 1991, Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003, p. 128,ISBN0-203-03283-7
^Hughes, "Human Sacrifice", 1991, pp.119-122 & notes 145, 146 for a clear account of the error, and how and why it might have been perpetuated
^Faraone, Christopher A. "Binding and Burying the Forces of Evil: The Defensive Use of 'Voodoo Dolls' in Ancient Greece."Classical Antiquity, vol. 10, no. 2, 1991, pp. 165–220.JSTOR25010949. Accessed 18 Aug. 2021
^Graf, F. "Women, War, and Warlike Divinities."Zeitschrift Für Papyrologie Und Epigraphik, vol. 55, 1984, p. 252.JSTOR20184039. Accessed 13 Aug. 2021.
^"Ares".academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/9344. Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007-10-10. Retrieved2017-01-16.
^Hughes, Dennis D.,Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece, Routledge, 1991, Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003, p. 128,ISBN0-203-03283-7. Hughes is citing Apollodorus of Athens, Die Fragmente der griechischen Historike, 244 F 125. English translation of Porphyry is inPorphyry.On Abstinence from Killing Animals. p. II.55.
^Oppermann, Manfred, Dimittrova, Nora M.,religion, Thracian, "Oxford Classical Dictionary,https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5553 ..."Ares suggests the existence of a war-god, Dionysus probably stood for a deity of orgiastic character linked with fertility and vegetation, while Artemis was an embodiment of the major female deity, frequently interpreted as the Great Goddess"...
^Sulimirski, T. (1985). "The Scyths" in: Fisher, W. B. (Ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 2: The Median and Achaemenian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-20091-1. pp. 158–159. Sulimirski is citing Herodotus, Book IV, 71-73, for the account of sacrifice to Ares.
^Geary, Patrick J. (1994). "Chapter 3. Germanic Tradition and Royal Ideology in the Ninth Century: The Visio Karoli Magni". Living with the Dead in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. p. 63.ISBN978-0-8014-8098-0.
^Millington, A.T. (2013) "Iyarri at the Interface: The Origins of Ares" in A. Mouton, I. Rutherford, & I. Yakubovich (eds.)Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean (Leiden) pp.555-557
^Martha W. Baldwin Bowsky. "Portrait of a Polis: Lato Pros Kamara (Crete) in the Late Second Century B. C." Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, vol. 58, no. 3, The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1989, pp. 331–47,https://doi.org/10.2307/148222
^This refers to a double-temple to Aphrodite and Ares reported by Pausanias. Its cult practises are unknown. See Fusco, U. (2017). The Sanctuary of Aphrodite and Ares (Paus. 2.25.1) in the Periurban Area of Argos and Temples with a Double Cella in Greece. Tekmeria, 13, 97-124. doi:https://doi.org/10.12681/tekmeria.1073.
^abMillington, Alexander T., "Iyarri at the Interface: The Origins of Ares" in A. Mouton, I. Rutherford, & I. Yakubovich (eds.)Luwian Identities: Culture, Language and Religion Between Anatolia and the Aegean (Leiden) 2013, pp.555-557
^abMillington, Alexander T.,War and the Warrior: Functions of Ares in Literature and Cult, University College, London, 2013, pp. 101-105[3]
^Glen Bowersock,The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam (Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 45, 47–48.
^Walter Burkert,Greek Religion (Blackwell, 1985, 2004 reprint, originally published 1977 in German), pp. 141; William Hansen,Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Mythical World of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 113.
^Marchand, Fabienne, and Beck, Hans,The Dancing Floor of Ares: Local Conflict and Regional Violence in Central Greece, Ancient History Bulletin, Supplemental Volume 1 (2020)ISSN0835-3638
^Myers, Sarah, University of Michigan, reviewing Celoria's translation inBryn Mawr Classical Review, 1994 (on-line text).
^Francis Celoria points out that in Ovid'sMetamorphoses, Venus [Aphrodite's Roman equivalent], hides herself as a fish. See Celoria, Francis, Antoninus Liberalis,The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis, A Translation with a Commentary, 1992, pp. 87, 186, eBook Published 24 October 2018, London, Routledge,[4] DOIhttps://doi.org/10.4324/9781315812755
^Liberalis credits the Greek writerBoios'Ornithogonia (now lost) as his source;Oliphant, Samuel Grant (1913). "The Story of the Strix: Ancient".Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association.44. The Johns Hopkins University Press:133–149.doi:10.2307/282549.JSTOR28254.
^Bremmer, Jan N. (1996). "mythology". In Hornblower & Spawforth (ed.).The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1018–1020.ISBN019866172X.
^Reeve, Michael D. (1996). "scholia". In Hornblower & Spawforth (ed.).The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 1368.ISBN019866172X.
^abMurray, John (1833).A Classical Manual, being a Mythological, Historical and Geographical Commentary on Pope's Homer, and Dryden's Aeneid of Virgil with a Copious Index. Albemarle Street, London. pp. 70.
^Beard, Mary, North, John A., Price, Simon R. F.,Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 47–48
^Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia,The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215.
^Kurt A. Raaflaub,War and Peace in the Ancient World (Blackwell, 2007), p. 15.
^Paul Rehak and John G. Younger,Imperium and Cosmos: Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius (University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), pp. 11–12.
^Isidore of Seville calls MarsRomanae gentis auctorem, the originator or founder of the Roman people as agens (Etymologiae 5.33.5).
^The scene in which Ares and Aphrodite are entrapped by Hephaestus' net (Homer,Odyssey VIII: 166-365 is also in Ovid's Latin languageMetamorphoses IV: 171-189[5]
^This chart is based uponHesiod'sTheogony, unless otherwise noted.
^According toHesiod,Theogony927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.
^According toHesiod'sTheogony886–890, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.
^According toHesiod,Theogony183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.
Hard, Robin,The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004.ISBN9780415186360.Google Books.
Pausanias,Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
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