Anarchive is an accumulation ofhistorical records ormaterials, in any medium, or the physical facility in which they are located.[1][2]
Archives containprimary source documents that have accumulated over the course of an individual or organization's lifetime, and are kept to show the history and function of that person or organization.[3][4] Professionalarchivists and historians generally understand archives to be records that have been naturally and necessarily generated as a product of regular legal, commercial, administrative, or social activities.[5] They have been metaphorically defined as "the secretions of an organism",[6] and are distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or created to communicate a particular message to posterity.
In general, archives consist of records that have been selected for permanent or long-term preservation on the grounds of their enduring cultural, historical, or evidentiary value.[4] Archival records are normally unpublished and almost always unique, unlike books or magazines, of which many identical copies may exist. This means that archives are quite distinct fromlibraries with regard to their functions and organization, although archival collections can often be found within library buildings.[7]
A person who works in archives is called anarchivist. The study and practice of organizing, preserving, and providing access to information and materials in archives is calledarchival science. The physical place of storage can be referred to as an archive (more usual in theUnited Kingdom), an archives (more usual in theUnited States), or a repository.[8][9]
The computing use of the term "archive" should not be confused with the record-keeping meaning of the term.
The English wordarchive/ˈɑːrkaɪv/ is derived from the Frencharchives (plural), and in turn fromLatinarchīum orarchīvum,[10] theromanized form of theGreekἀρχεῖον (arkheion). The Greek term originally referred to the home or dwelling of theArchon, a ruler or chiefmagistrate, in which important official state documents were filed and interpreted; from there its meaning broadened to encompass such concepts as "town hall" and "public records".[11] The root of the Greek word isἀρχή (arkhē), meaning among other things "magistracy, office, government",[12] and derived from the verbἄρχω (arkhō), meaning "to begin, rule, govern" (also the root of English words such as "anarchy" and "monarchy").[13]
The wordarchive was first attested in English in the early 17th century, and the wordarchivist in the mid-18th century, although in these periods both terms were usually used only in reference to foreign institutions and personnel. Not until the late 19th century did they begin to be used widely in domestic contexts.[9][14]
The practice of keeping official documents is very old.[15] Archaeologists have discovered archives of hundreds (and sometimes thousands) of clay tablets dating back to the third and second millennia BC in sites likeEbla,Mari,Amarna,Hattusas,Ugarit, andPylos. These discoveries have been fundamental to learning about ancient alphabets, languages, literature, and politics.[citation needed]
Oral literature, such asPalestinian hikaye, can also have archival functions for communities.[16]
Archives were well developed by the ancient Chinese, the ancient Greeks, and the ancient Romans (who called themTabularia). The idea that a society would designate a place to preserve records is integral to the Justinian Code (which set Roman law).[17]
England, after 1066, developed archives and archival access methods.[18] The Swiss developed archival systems after 1450.[19]
The earliest archival manuals: Jacob von Rammingen,Von der Registratur (1571), Baldassarre Bonifacio,De Archivis (1632).
The first predecessors of archival science in the West are Jacob von Rammingen's manuals of 1571.[20] andBaldassarre Bonifacio'sDe Archivis libris singularis of 1632.[21]
Modern archival thinking has some roots dating back to theFrench Revolution. TheFrench National Archives, which possess perhaps the largest archival collection in the world (with records going as far back as 625 A.D.), was created in 1790 during the Revolution from various government, religious, and private archives seized by the revolutionaries.[22]
In 1883, French archivist Gabriel Richou published the first Western text on archival theory, entitledTraité théorique et pratique des archives publiques (Treaty of Theory and Practice of the Public Archives), in which he systematized the archival theory of therespect des fonds, first published byNatalis de Wailly in 1841.[23]
Historians,genealogists, lawyers,demographers, filmmakers, and others conduct research at archives.[24] The research process at each archive is unique and depends upon the institution that houses the archive. While there are many kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in the United States identifies five major types:academic,business (for profit),government,non-profit, andothers.[25] There are also four main areas of inquiry involved with archives: material technologies, organizing principles, geographic locations, and tangled embodiments of humans and non-humans. These areas help to further categorize what kind of archive is being created.
Archives in colleges, universities, and other educational facilities are typically housed within a library, and duties may be carried out by anarchivist.[26][page needed] Academic archives exist to preserve institutional history and serve the academic community.[27] An academic archive may contain materials such as the institution's administrative records, personal and professional papers of former professors and presidents, memorabilia related to school organizations and activities, and items the academic library wishes to remain in a closed-stack setting, such as rare books orthesis copies. Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only; some have posted hours for making inquiries. Users of academic archives can be undergraduates, graduate students, faculty and staff, scholarly researchers, and the general public. Many academic archives work closely withalumni relations departments or other campus institutions to help raise funds for their library or school.[28] Qualifications for employment may vary. Entry-level positions usually require an undergraduate diploma, but typically archivists hold graduate degrees in history or library science (preferably certified by a body such as theAmerican Library Association).[29] Subject-area specialization becomes more common in higher-ranking positions.[30]
Archives located in for-profit institutions are usually those owned by a private business. Examples of prominent business archives in the United States includeCoca-Cola (which also owns the separate museumWorld of Coca-Cola),Procter and Gamble,Motorola Heritage Services and Archives, andLevi Strauss & Co. These corporate archives maintain historic documents and items related to the history and administration of their companies.[31] Business archives serve the purpose of helping corporations maintain control over their brand by retaining memories of the company's past. Especially in business archives,records management is separate from the historical aspect of archives. Workers in these types of archives may have any combination of training and degrees, from either a history or library background. These archives are typically not open to the public and are only used by workers of the owner company, though some allow approved visitors by appointment.[32] Business archives are concerned with maintaining theintegrity of their company and are therefore selective about how their materials may be used.[33]
Government archives include those maintained by local and state governments as well as those maintained by the national (or federal) government. Anyone may use a government archive, and frequent users includereporters,genealogists, writers,historians, students, and people seeking information on the history of their home or region. Many government archives are open to the public, and no appointment is required to visit.[34]
In the United States, theNational Archives and Records Administration (NARA) maintains central archival facilities in theDistrict of Columbia andCollege Park, Maryland, with regional facilities distributed throughout the United States. Some city or local governments may have repositories, but their organization and accessibility vary widely.[35] Similar to the library profession, certification requirements and education also varies widely, from state to state.[36] Professional associations themselves encourage the need to professionalize.[37] NARA offers the Certificate of Federal Records Management Training Program for professional development.[38] The majority of state and local archives staff hold abachelor's degree[39]—increasingly repositories list advanced degrees (e.g. MA, MLS/MLIS, Ph.D.) and certifications as a position requirement or preference.[29]
A network ofcounty record offices and other local authority-run archives exists throughout England, Wales, and Scotland and holds many important collections, including local government, landed estates, church, and business records. Many archives have contributed catalogs to the national "Access to Archives" program and online searching across collections is possible.
In France, the French Archives Administration (Service interministériel des Archives de France) in theMinistry of Culture supervises theNational Archives (Archives nationales), which possess 373 km (232 miles) of physical records as of 2020[update] (the total length of occupied shelves put next to each other), with original records going as far back as A.D. 625, and 74.75 terabytes (74,750GB) of electronic archives, as well as theNational Overseas Archives (ANOM, 36.5 kilometres (22.7 mi) of physical records), theNational Archives of the World of Labour [fr] (ANMT, 49.8 kilometres (30.9 mi) of physical records), and all local public archives (departmental archives, orarchives départementales, located in thepréfectures of each of the 100départements of France plus the City of Paris, more than 400 municipal archives in the larger towns and cities of France, and 12 newer regional archives) which possess 3,591 km (2,231 miles) of physical records and 225.25 terabytes of electronic archives (as of 2020[update]).[43][44] Put together, the total volume of archives under the supervision of the French Archives Administration is the largest in the world.
InTaiwan, the National Archives Administration are located inTaipei.[46]
Most intergovernmental organizations keep their own historical archives. However, a number of European organizations, including the European Commission, choose to deposit their archives with the European University Institute in Florence.[47]
A prominent church archive is theVatican Apostolic Archive.[48]Archdioceses,dioceses, and parishes also have archives in the Roman Catholic andAnglican Churches. Very important aremonastery archives because of their antiquity, like the ones ofMonte Cassino,Saint Gall, andFulda. The records in these archives include manuscripts, papal records, local church records, photographs, oral histories, audiovisual materials, and architectural drawings.
Most Protestant denominations have archives as well, including thePresbyterian Historical Society,[49] the Moravian Church Archives,[50] the Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives,[51] the United Methodist Archives and History Center of the United Methodist Church,[52] and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[53]
Film archives collect, restore, investigate and conserve audiovisual content like films, documentaries, tv programs and newsreel footage. Often, a country has its own film archive to preserve its national audiovisual heritage. TheInternational Federation of Film Archives comprises more than 150 institutions in over 77 countries and theAssociation of European Film Archives and Cinematheques is an affiliation of 49 European national and regional film archives founded in 1991. For a comprehensive look at the history of film preservation and the institutions and organizations that developed various practices, seePenelope Houston'sKeepers of the Frame.
Non-profit archives include those inhistorical societies, not-for-profit businesses such as hospitals, and repositories withinfoundations. Such repositories are typically set up with private funds from donors to preserve the papers and histories of specific people or places. These institutions may rely ongrant funding from the government as well as private funds.[54] Depending on the availability of funds, non-profit archives may be as small as the historical society in a rural town to as big as a state historical society that rivals a government archive. Users of this type of archive may vary as much as the institutions that hold it. Employees of non-profit archives may be professional archivists,paraprofessionals, or volunteers, as the education required for a position at a non-profit archive varies with the demands of the collection's user base.[55]
Web archiving is the process of collecting portions of theWorld Wide Web and ensuring the collection ispreserved in an archive, such as anarchive site, for future researchers, historians, and the public. Due to the massive size of the Web, web archivists typically employweb crawlers for automated collection.
Similarly, software code and documentation can be archived on the web, as with the example ofCPAN.
Jean-Nickolaus Tretter Collection in Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Studies in May 2013
Some archives defy categorization. There are tribal archives within theNative American nations in North America, and there are archives that exist within the papers of private individuals. Many museums keep archives in order to prove theprovenance of their pieces. Any institution or persons wishing to keep their significant papers in an organized fashion that employs the most basic principles ofarchival science may have an archive. In the 2004 census of archivists taken in the United States, 2.7% of archivists were employed in institutions that defied categorization. This was a separate figure from the 1.3% that identified themselves as self-employed.[56]
Another type of archive is the Public Secrets project.[57] This is an interactive testimonial, in which women incarcerated in the California State Prison System describe what happened to them. The archive's mission is to gather stories from women who want to express themselves and want their stories heard. This collection includes transcripts and an audio recording of the women telling their stories.
The archives of an individual may include letters, papers, photographs, computer files, scrapbooks, financial records, or diaries created or collected by the individual, regardless of medium or format. The archives of an organization (such as a corporation or government) tend to contain other types of records, such as administrative files, business records, memos, official correspondence, and meeting minutes. Some archives are made up of a compilation of both types of collections. An example of this type of combined compilation is theTransgender Archives at the University of Victoria, which contain a multitude of collections of donations from both individuals and organizations from all over the world. Many of these donations have yet to be cataloged but are currently in the process of beingdigitally preserved and made available to the public online.[58]
TheArctic World Archive is a commercially-run facility for data preservation located in theSvalbard archipelago, Norway, that contains data of historical and cultural interest from several countries as well as all of American multinational companyGitHub'sopen source code. The data is kept on reels of specially developed film in a steel vault buried deep beneath thepermafrost, with the data storage medium expected to last for 500 to 1000 years.[59]
TheInternational Council on Archives (ICA) has developed a number of standards on archival description, including the General International Standard Archival Description ISAD(G).[60] ISAD (G) is meant to be used in conjunction with national standards or as a basis for nations to build their own standards.[61] In the United States, ISAD (G) is implemented throughDescribing Archives: A Content Standard, popularly known as "DACS".[62] In Canada, ISAD (G) is implemented through the Council of Archives[63] as theRules for Archival Description, also known as "RAD".[64]
The cultural property stored in archives is threatened by natural disasters, wars, or other emergencies in many countries. International partners for archives areUNESCO andBlue Shield International, in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property from 1954 and its 2nd Protocol from 1999. From a national and international perspective, there are many collaborations between archives and local Blue Shield organizations to ensure the sustainable existence of cultural property storage facilities. In addition to working withUnited Nations peacekeeping in the event of war, the protection of the archives requires the creation of "no-strike lists", the linking of civil and military structures, and the training of local personnel.[67][68][69][70]
Archives that primarily contain physical artifacts and printed documents are increasingly shifting todigitizing items that did notoriginate digitally, which are then usually stored away. This allows for greater accessibility when using search tools and databases, as well as an increase in the availability of digitized materials from outside the physical parameters of an archive, but there may be an element of loss or disconnect when there are gaps in what items are made available digitally.[71] Both physical and digital archives also generally have specific limitations regarding the types of content that are deemed able to be preserved, categorized, and archived. Conventional institutionalized archive spaces have a tendency to prioritize tangible items over ephemeral experiences, actions, effects, and even bodies.[72][73] This type of potentially biased prioritization may be seen as a form of privileging particular types of knowledge or interpreting certain experiences as more valid than others, limiting the content available to archive users, leading to barriers in accessing information, and potentially alienating under-represented and/or marginalized populations and theirepistemologies andontologies.[74] As Omnia El Shakry shows, dealing with destruction is a challenge central to decolonial historiography.[75] When faced with a lack of archival documents, historians resort to different sources and methods. For example, due to the lack of a Palestinian state archive, many historians ofNakba had to rely on sources in the Israeli state's archives.[76]
As a result of this perceived under-representation, some activists are making efforts todecolonize contemporary archival institutions that may employ hegemonic and white supremacist practices by implementing subversive alternatives such as anarchiving or counter-archiving with the intention of makingintersectional accessibility a priority for those who cannot or do not want to access contemporary archival institutions.[77][78][72] An example of this is Morgan M. Page's description of disseminatingtransgender history directly to trans people through various social media and networking platforms liketumblr,Twitter, andInstagram, as well as viapodcast.[78] While the majority of archived materials are typically well conserved within their collections, anarchiving's attention to ephemerality also brings to light the inherent impermanence and gradual change of physical objects over time as a result of being handled.[79]
The concept of counter-archiving brings into question what tends to be considered archivable and what is therefore selected to be preserved within conventional contemporary archives.[78][80] With the options available through counter-archiving, there is the potential to "challenge traditional conceptions of history" as they are perceived within contemporary archives, which creates space for narratives that are often not present in many archival materials.[81] The unconventional nature of counter-archiving practices makes room for the maintenance of ephemeral qualities contained within certain historically significant experiences, performances, and personally or culturally relevant stories that do not typically have a space in conventional archives.[82]
The practices of anarchiving and counter-archiving are both rooted insocial justice work.[83]
^ἀρχεῖονArchived 9 October 2012 at theWayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ἀρχήArchived 6 June 2011 at theWayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ἄρχωArchived 18 June 2013 at theWayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^Procter, Margaret (2010). "What's an 'archivist'? Some nineteenth-century perspectives".Journal of the Society of Archivists.31 (1):15–27.doi:10.1080/00379811003658476.S2CID144006118.
^Yeo Geoffrey. 2021.Record-Making and Record-Keeping in Early Societies. Abingdon Oxon: Routledge.
^Michael T. Clanchy,From Memory to Written Record: England 1066–1307 (Blackwell, 1979).
^Randolph Head, "Knowing Like a State: The Transformation of Political Knowledge in Swiss Archives, 1450–1770",Journal of Modern History, 75 (2003), pp. 745–82.onlineArchived 16 December 2018 at theWayback Machine
^The earliest predecessors of archival science - Jacob von Rammingen's two manuals of the registry and archival management, printed in 1571, translated by JBLD Strömberg. Lund: Wallin & Dalholm, Lundaboken, 2010
^L. Sandri, 'Il "De Archivis" di Baldassare Bonifacio',Notizie delle Archive di Stato, Roma, 1950, p. 95-111.
^abRiggs, Michelle (2005). "The Correlation of Archival Education and Job Requirements Since the Advent of Encoded Archival Description".Journal of Archival Organization.3 (1):61–79.doi:10.1300/J201v03n01_06.S2CID145257839.
^Watkins, Christine. "Chapter Report: The Many Faces of Certification." American Libraries 29, no. 9 (October 1998): 11. (accessed 23 July 2014).
^Bastian, Jeannette, and Elizabeth Yakel. "'Are We There Yet?' Professionalism and the Development of an Archival Core Curriculum in the United States." Journal of Education for Library & Information Science 46, no. 2 (Spring2005 2005): 95–114. (accessed 23 July 2014)
^Whitehill, Walter Muir (1962). "Introduction".Independent Historical Societies: An Enquiry into Their Research and Publication Functions and Their Financial Future. Boston, Massachusetts: Boston Athenaeum. p. 311.
^Walch, Victoria Irons (2006)."A*Census: A Closer Look".The American Archivist.69 (2):327–348.Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved8 May 2007.
^Corine Wegener, Marjan Otter "Cultural Property at War: Protecting Heritage during Armed Conflict" in The Getty Conservation Institute, Newsletter 23.1, Spring 2008.
^Marilyn E. Phelan "Museum Law: A Guide for Officers, Directors, and Counsel" (2014), p 419.
^Aisling Irwin "A no-strike list may shield Yemen`s ancient treasures from war" in Daily News, 23 January 2017.
^Loeper, Lindsey. "LibGuides: Visiting Special Collections: Silences and bias in archives".lib.guides.umbc.edu. Retrieved 2021-02-06.
^Mikdashi, Maya (2022). "The Archive is Burning: Law, Unknowability, and the Curation of History".Practicing Sectarianism. Stanford University Press. p. 59.doi:10.1515/9781503633872-006.
^Donnelly, Mark; Norton, Claire."Doing History".Routledge. p. 135. Retrieved12 February 2024.
^Caswell, Michelle. “Teaching to Dismantle White Supremacy in Archives.”The Library Quarterly (Chicago), vol. 87, no. 3, 2017, pp. 222-235.
^abcPage, Morgan M. "One from the Vaults: Gossip, Access, and Trans History-Telling."Trap Door: Trans Cultural Production and the Politics of Visibility. By Reina Gossett, Eric A. Stanley, and Johanna Burton. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2017. 135-46. Print.
Bastian, J. A., & Webber, D. (2008).Archival internships: a guide for faculty, supervisors, and students. Society of American Archivists.
Chen, A. (2020).Placing papers: the American literary archives market. University of Massachusetts Press.
Kandiuk, M. (Ed.). (2020).Archives and special collections as sites of contestation. Library Juice Press.
Mitchell, E., Seiden, P., & Taraba, S. (Eds). (2012).Past or portal? : enhancing undergraduate learning through special collections and archives. Association of College and Research Libraries, a division of the American Library Association.
Theimer, K. (Ed.). (2014).Management: Innovative Practices for Archives and Special Collections. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
