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Thearchitecture of Turkey includes heritage from theancient era of Anatolia to the present day. Significant remains from theGreco-Roman period are located throughout the country. TheByzantine period produced, among other monuments, the celebratedHagia Sophia inConstantinople (present-dayIstanbul). Following the arrival of theSeljuk Turks in the 11th century,Seljuk architecture mixedIslamic architecture with other styles of local architecture inAnatolia. TheOttoman Empire ushered in a centuries-long tradition ofOttoman architecture up until the early 20th century.
In the first years of theTurkish republic (after 1923), Turkish architecture was influenced by earlier Seljuk and Ottoman architecture, in particular during theFirst National Architectural Movement (also called the Turkish Neoclassical architecture movement). However, starting from the 1930s, architectural styles began to differ from traditional architecture, also as a result of an increasing number of foreign architects being invited to work in the country, mostly fromGermany andAustria.[1] The Second World War was a period of isolation, during which the Second National Architectural Movement emerged. Similar toFascist architecture, the movement aimed to create a modern but nationalistic architecture.[2]
From the 1950s the nation became more internationally connected, which enabled Turkish architects to experiment with new styles and become increasingly inspired by their counterparts in the rest of the world. However, they were largely constrained by the lack of technological infrastructure or insufficient financial resources until the 1980s.[3] Thereafter, the liberalization of the economy and the shift towardsexport-led growth[4] paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence on architecture in Turkey.
The ancient Greeks founded many city-states along theAegean shores in western Anatolia and beyond. During the Hellenistic period, theKingdom of Pergamon was one of the most powerful and the site of the city ofPergamon is one of Turkey'sUNESCO World Heritage Sites today.[5] Anatolia continued to prosper in the Roman era and cities such asEphesus andSardis, in addition to Pergamon, grew considerably during this time. Many of the Greco-Roman sites in the Aegean andMediterranean regions of present-day Turkey thus preserve substantially, if not primarily,Roman constructions.[6]
The Byzantine era followed the division of the oldRoman Empire into eastern and western halves in the late 4th century. The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as theByzantine Empire, had its capital atConstantinople, present-dayIstanbul.Byzantine architecture started as a continuation of late Roman architecture but it further developed over the following millennium.[7][8] TheHagia Sophia, a massivedomed church completed in 537 underJustinian I, is the greatest achievement of Byzantine architecture.[9][10] It exercised significant influence on subsequent Byzantine church architecture and eventually onOttoman architecture.[11] The Byzantine style is also known for its sophisticatedmosaic art. A major example of this art in thelate Byzantine period is the 14th-centuryChora Church (present-day Kariye Mosque) in Istanbul.[12]
Architecture under the Anatolian Seljuks incorporated an eclectic mix of influences,[13] adopting localByzantine,Armenian, andGeorgian elements and combining them with designs from Islamic Syria, Iran, Iraq, and Central Asia.[14][15] Their monuments were largely built in dressed stone, with brick used for minarets.[16] Decoration was concentrated around certain elements like entrance portals and took the form of elaboratestone carving (e.g. theInce Minareli Medrese and theDivriği complex), occasionalablaq stonework (e.g.Alâeddin Mosque in Konya), and large surfaces covered intilework (e.g.Karatay Medrese).[17][14]
As Anatolia fragmented intoBeyliks during the later 13th and 14th centuries, architecture became even more diverse, particularly in western Anatolia, where proximity to the Byzantine and Mediterranean worlds encouraged further experimentation and syncretism.[18]
Thearchitecture of the early Ottomans experimented with different building types, including single-domed mosques, multi-domed buildings, and religious buildings with T-shaped floor plans.[11] This eventually evolved into theClassical Ottoman style that was consolidated during the 16th and 17th centuries.[11] This style, drawing strong influence from the Hagia Sophia, produced grand imperial mosques designed around a central dome and a varying number of semi-domes.[11] This period is also associated with the most famous Ottoman architect,Mimar Sinan (d. 1588). Among his over 300 designs across the empire, his most important works include theŞehzade Mosque in Istanbul, theSüleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, and theSelimiye Mosque in Edirne.[11] In decorative arts,Iznik tiles reached their artistic peak and were used in many buildings.[19][18]
After the 17th century, Ottoman architecture was increasingly open to outside influences.Shifts during the Tulip Period were followed by the appearance of theOttoman Baroque style in the 1740s.[20][21] In the 19th century, Western European influences increased and architects such as theBalyans producedeclectic works like the luxuriousDolmabaçe Palace.[22] In the early 20th-century, a kind of Ottoman revivalism known as theFirst National Architectural Movement was led by architects likeMimar Kemaleddin andVedat Tek.[23][24]
TheFirst National Architecture Movement (Turkish:Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı) was an architectural movement led by Turkish architectsVedat Tek (1873–1942) andMimar KemaleddinBey (1870–1927). Followers of the movement wanted to create a new and "national" architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The movement was also labelledTurkish Neoclassical architecture, or theNational Architectural Renaissance.[25] Other prominent followers of this movement wereArif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982) andGiulio Mongeri (1873–1953).[26] Notable buildings from this era are theIstanbul Main Post Office (1905–1909),Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922),[27]Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926),[28]State Art and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930),[29]Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928),[30]Bebek Mosque,[31] and Kamer Hatun Mosque.[32][33]
Italian architectRaimondo D'Aronco served as the chief palace architect to the Ottoman SultanAbdülhamid II inIstanbul for 16 years. D'Aronco designed and built a large number of buildings of various types in Istanbul. The stylistic features of his works can be classified in three groups:Revivalism, reinterpretation of the Ottoman forms,Art Nouveau andVienna Secession. Art Nouveau was first introduced to Istanbul by D'Aronco, and his designs reveal that he drew freely on Byzantine and Ottoman decorations. D'Aronco also mixed Western and Oriental styles in his work, which was likewise a notable characteristic of the designs ofAlexander Vallaury in the same period.[34]
TheBauhaus styleFlorya Atatürk Marine Mansion (1935) and theArt Deco styleAnkara Central Station (1937) are among the notable examples of this era.[35][36] As there were not enough architects in Turkey until the 1950s, various architects were invited by the government fromGermany,Austria,Switzerland andFrance, in order to manage the rapid construction of the new capitalAnkara. About 40 architects and urban planners designed and oversaw various projects (mostly in Ankara, and to a lesser extent in Istanbul and İzmir) between 1924 and 1942. Among them were Gudrun Baudisch,Rudolf Belling,Paul Bonatz, Ernst Arnold Egli,Martin Elsaesser,Anton Hanak, Franz Hillinger,Clemens Holzmeister,Henri Prost,Paolo Vietti-Violi, Werner Issel,Hermann Jansen, Theodor Jost, Heinrich Krippel, Carl Christoph Lörcher, Robert Oerley, Bernhard Pfau,Bruno Taut andJosef Thorak.[1][2]
Selected examples of buildings from this era are theBauhaus styleFlorya Atatürk Marine Mansion (1935) designed bySeyfi Arkan; theArt Deco styleAnkara railway station (1937) designed byŞekip Akalın; theCourt of Cassation building (1933–35) designed byClemens Holzmeister; the Faculty of Languages, History and Geography building (1937) ofAnkara University designed byBruno Taut; and theGrand National Assembly of Turkey building (1938–63) designed byClemens Holzmeister.[35]
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TheStripped Classicism movement of the late 1930s and early 1940s in Europe and North America sought amodern interpretation ofNeoclassical architecture. The movement had a particularly notable impact onFascist architecture inItaly andNazi architecture inGermany, which aimed to develop the modern versions of the architecture of theRoman (Italy) andHoly Roman (Germany) empires, according to their ideologies. In the same period, there was a trend towards creating a new national architecture in Turkey, which was called theSecond National Architectural Movement (Turkish:İkinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı).[2][37][38] The foreign architects employed in Turkey in this period (especially fromGermany andAustria) played an important role in the introduction of this architectural movement and its style. The pioneers of the movement in Turkey wereSedad Hakkı Eldem, Ekrem Hakkı Ayverdi[39] andEmin Halid Onat. To lead this movement, Professor Sedad Hakkı Eldem held National Architecture seminars atMimar Sinan Fine Arts University, focusing on traditional Turkish house styles.[40]
Like theircontemporary equivalents in Europe and North America, the government buildings of this style in Ankara and Istanbul typically had large proportions (high ceilings, high windows, etc.) to give the impression of a strong state authority. Some of them also had monumentalfacade designs reminiscent ofNeoclassical architecture; but with more modern and plain rectangular shapes, symmetry, simplicity, and ageneral lack of ornateness.
Some of the buildings in this style are theAnkara Opera House, designed byŞevki Balmumcu (1933–34) and renovated byPaul Bonatz (1946–47); theTCDD General Headquarters Building designed by Bedri Uçar in 1938;Istanbul University Faculty of Science and Faculty of Literature buildings (1944–52);Anıtkabir (1944–53); Istanbul Radio Headquarters (1945–49); Şişli Mosque (1945–49); and theÇanakkale Martyrs' Memorial (1954–60). The movement was particularly influential between 1935 and 1950. From the 1950s, the influence of this style diminished due to the next wave, especiallyInternational Style andRationalism.[40]
At the beginning of the 1950s, a new generation of architects such as Nevzat Erol,Turgut Cansever, Abdurrahman Hancı, Cengiz Bektaş, Hayati Tabanlıoğlu, Enver Tokay, İlhan Tayman and Yılmaz Sanlı became more influential in the architectural arena. These were architects who either studied in Europe or had information of the modernist architecture of the time. Their quest for modernist architecture was in line with theInternational Style andRationalism. However, the development of the Turkish economy was an important factor as well. Even though Turkish architects were able to follow up on the modern design of important architects of the time, they were constrained by the lack of technological infrastructure or insufficient financial resources.[3][33]
Selected examples of buildings from this era are the Anadolu Club Hotel (1951–1957) inBüyükada designed byTurgut Cansever and Abdurrahman Hancı;Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus (1952–1955) designed bySkidmore, Owings & Merrill and Sedad Hakkı Eldem; Istanbul Municipality Headquarters (1953–1960) designed by Nevzat Erol;Emek Business Center (1959–1965) in Ankara designed by Enver Tokay and İlhan Tayman; and Tekel Headquarters (1958–1960) in Istanbul designed by Yılmaz Sanlı and İlhan Tayman.[3]
One of the most important developments of this period was the establishment of theChamber of Architects of Turkey in 1954. Various professional organizations for architects had existed beforehand, but there were no laws for the architectural profession until 1954.[41]Brutalist architecture become popular during 1950s, the work ofBehruz Çinici inMiddle East Technical University is the best example of this era.
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Following the1960 coup d'état, Turkey endured various kinds of political andeconomic crises which affected the construction industry as well as the architectural sector. Despite these hardships, architects were able to design some important buildings. AbandoningRationalism, Turkish architects tried to design their buildings in more flexible and fragmented forms. Important works from this period are the Vakıflar Hotel in Istanbul (1968, today theCeylan Intercontinental Hotel),Middle East Technical University Campuses (1961) in Ankara, Istanbul Manufacturers' Market (1959),Turkish Historical Society Building (1967), Grand Ankara Hotel (1960, today theRixos Grand Ankara Hotel) andAtatürk Cultural Center (1969) in Istanbul.[42][43]
As a result of economic and social turbulence, architecture in Turkey suffered also in the 1970s. There were no significant breakthroughs during this period. Some important designs from the 1970s are theTurkish Language Association Building (1972), Atatürk Library (1973) andAbdi İpekçi Arena (1979).[44]
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In January 1980, the government of Prime MinisterSüleyman Demirel began implementing a far-reaching reform program designed by then Undersecretary of the Prime MinistryTurgut Özal to shift Turkey's economy towardexport-led growth. These reforms had a positive effect on the construction industry and architecture.[4] New methods such asprefabrication andcurtain wall systems were introduced to Turkish architects and contractors in the 1980s. In addition, steel, aluminum, plastic and glass production increased, which allowed architects to free themselves from rigid forms.
Until the 1980s, the government sector was the leading client when it came to architecture and construction. However, the liberalization of the economy paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence. Notable architects from this period include Behruz Çinici, Merih Karaaslan, Sevinç Hadi, Şandor Hadi, Ersen Gürsel, Mehmet Çubuk, Doğan Tekeli, Sami Sisa, Emre Arolat, Murat Tabanlıoğlu, Melkan Tabanlıoğlu, Hüsrev Tayla, Doğan Hasol, Atilla Yücel, Sema Soygeniş, Murat Soygeniş andKaya Arıkoğlu, among others.[43][44][45]
When architects andstructural engineers collaborate they can designbuildings which are more sustainable.[48]
![Istanbul Sapphire in Levent (2006–2011) is currently the tallest building in Istanbul and Turkey, and the 4th tallest in Europe.[49]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSapphire_building_9010.jpg)
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In earthquake-prone areas, all buildings built to20th century standards may be dangerous,[50] but shortly after the1999 İzmit earthquake, which killed over 17 thousand people, a newseismic code was brought into force to protect againstearthquakes in Turkey.[51][52] Also following that earthquake a so-calledearthquake tax was raised during the government ofBülent Ecevit.[53] Initially thought as a temporary tax, it became permanent.[51] In 2007 the seismic code was strengthened.[54][55] However, it is alleged thatbuilders often ignored the rules due tocorruption.[56] After the2011 Van earthquakes Prime MinisterRecep Tayyip Erdoğan said: "Municipalities, constructors and supervisors should now see that their negligence amounts to murder."[57] In 2018, azoning law gave amnesties to someunlicensed buildings and some with unlicensed floors.[57]
Further resilience over the 2007 code was mandated in the 2018 Turkish Seismic Code, which took effect on 1 January 2019.[54][58] Improvements included design supervision and site specific hazard definitions,[59] and for new buildings in vulnerable regions requiredrebar in high quality concrete.[60] Beams and columns in those buildings must be in the right place to properly absorb shaking.[60] The code is said by foreign experts to be very modern and similar to US codes.[61] However, these 21st century building codes were not very well enforced.[50]
In a bid to shore up support going into the2018 Turkish presidential election, the government offered amnesties for violations of the building code, allowing non-compliance to continue with the payment of a fee.[62] This poor enforcement of seismic codes was a contributing factor to the devastation of the2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes in which over 42,000 people died in Turkey.[52] There were high incidences of support column failure leading topancake collapses, which complicated rescue efforts. Experts lamented the practice would turn cities into graveyards.[63] The 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes collapsed many older buildings and some recent ones:[64] theEnvironment and Urbanization Ministry is assessing the damage.[65]
Unreinforcedmasonry buildings are vulnerable.[66] Many olderbuildings in Istanbul are vulnerable topancake collapses.[67]Retrofitting old buildings is possible but expensive.[67] Although over 3 million housing units nationwide were strengthened in the 2 decades before 2023, as of that year many apartment blocks do not meet 21st century standards.[64]Building with wood has been suggested.[68]
There are almost 10 millionbuildings in Turkey,[69]: section 4.2.3 and as they are the largest energy consumers there are substantial opportunities for energy savings in both new build and renovations.[70] There is a roadmap, which says that as of 2021 three quarters of building stock is pre-21st century, that is pre energy standards.[71] A typical residential building emits almost 50 kgCO2eq/m2/year, mostly due to the energy used by residents.[72] TheOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has said that more could be done to improve the energy efficiency of buildings, and that tax incentives offered for this would create jobs.[73]: 62 Turkey was a co-leader of the group discussingzero-carbon buildings at the2019 UN Climate Action Summit, and the city ofEskişehir has pledged to convert all existing buildings to zero emissions by 2050.[74][75] Such energy efficiency improvements can be made in the same programme as increasing resilience toearthquakes in Turkey.[76] However, as of 2023 gas was subsidized.[77] Increasing the proportion ofpassive houses has been suggested,[78] as has adopting some EU building standards.[79] ThinktankEmber said in 2023 thatrooftop solar should be mandatory on new buildings, and say that installation on apartment block roofs is hindered by bureaucracy.[80] To improve theenergy efficiency of buildings it has been suggested thatgreen building principles and technologies should be applied.[81]
Althoughlow-energy houses,zero-energy buildings andzero carbon housing will be encouraged,[69]: section 4.2.3.1 the 2024 long-term plan said that "The existing natural gas transmission and distribution infrastructure will be strengthened, and natural gas access will be provided in areas where renewable sources and waste heat-based district heating/cooling systems are not technically or economically feasible."[69]: section 4.2.1.1 In rural areas without a piped gas supply,heat pumps could be an alternative to wood, coal and bottled gas: but buying a heat pump is rare as it is very expensive for householders as there is no subsidy.[82]: 29 However, owners of larger properties such as shopping centres, schools and government buildings have shown more interest.[83] Direct geothermal heating (not to be confused with heat pumps) installed capacity totaled 3.5 GW thermal (GWt) in 2020, with the potential for 60 GWt.[84]
There is no data on thecarbon intensity of cement.[85]: 13 Emissions from cement production could be lessened by reducing itsclinker content[86]—for example, by makingLimestone Calcined Clay Cement, which is only half clinker. The second-largest reduction could be made by switching half the fuel from hard coal andpetroleum coke (petcoke) to a mixture of rubber from waste tires,refuse-derived fuel andbiomass.[87] Although the country has enough of these materials, most cement kilns (there are 54[88]: 156 ) use coal, petcoke or lignite as their primary energy source.[88]: 154 Morecross-laminated timber could be used for building, instead of concrete.[89] Further decarbonisation of cement production would depend heavily on carbon capture,[69]: section 4.2.2.1 perhaps storing in asalt dome nearLake Tuz[90] or inDiyarbakır Province.[91]
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