Archaeometallurgy is the study of the past use and production of metals by humans. It is a sub-discipline ofarchaeology andarchaeological science that examines the relationship between human societies and metallurgical technologies throughout history.
The field encompasses several specializations, includingmetallography of finished objects,mineralogy of waste products such asslag, and manufacturing studies. Throughchemical andanthropological analysis, archaeometallurgy provides valuable insights into archaeological questions ranging from technological choices to social organization, contributing to our understanding of how ancient societies extracted, processed, and utilized metals.
There are various methodological approaches to archaeometallurgical studies. The same methods used inanalytical chemistry may be used to analyze artifacts. Chemical analysis methods may include the analysis ofmass,density orchemical composition. Most methods are non-destructive in nature, such asX-ray spectroscopy, or micro-destructive (requiring removal of only a tiny portion of the sample). Non-destructive methods can be used on more artefacts than destructive ones, but because they operate at the surface of the metal, corrosion and other surface effects may interfere with the results. Options that include sampling include various forms ofmass spectrometry and a variety of chemical tests.
One of the methods of archaeometallurgy is the study of modern metals andalloys to explain and understand the use of metals in the past. A study conducted by the department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics at Weizmann Institute of Science and the department of Archaeology at the University of Haifia analyzed the chemical composition and the mass of different denominations ofEuro coinage. They concluded that even with modern standards and technology, there is a considerable variation within the "same" denomination of coin.[1] This simple conclusion can be used to further analyze discoveries of ancient currency.
The specific study of thenon-ferrous metals used in past. Gold, silver and copper were the first to be used by ancient humans. Gold and copper are both found in their 'native' state in nature, and were thus the first to be exploited as they did not need to be smelted from their ores. They could be hammered into sheets or decorative shapes. Theextraction of copper from its ores may have developed due to the attractive colouring and value of ores such asmalachite.
The specific study of theferrous compounds (those includingiron, Fe) used in the past. Iron metal was first encountered inmeteorites, and was later extracted fromiron ores to createwrought iron which was never fully molten, and later,cast iron. Iron combined with carbon formedsteel, allowing people to develop superior tools and weapons from theIron Age to theIndustrial Revolution.
Early pioneers laid important groundwork for archaeometallurgy through field excavations and artifact documentation. Father Daniel Finn conducted systematic archaeological investigations onLamma Island,Hong Kong from 1927-1936, recovering and documenting numerous bronze artifacts including axes, vessels, and weapons, establishing one of the first comprehensive records of Bronze Age metallurgy in South China.[2]
After initial sporadic work, archaeometallurgy was more widely institutionalised globally during the 1960s and 70s. Research groups emerged in Britain (The British Museum, the UCL Institute for Archeo-Metallurgical Studies), Germany (Deutsches Bergbau Museum), the US (MIT andHarvard), and China, where the Archaeometallurgy Group of theBeijing University of Iron and Steel Technology (BUIST) was established in 1974.[3] Chinese researchers beganto apply modern techniques extensively in the late 1970s.[3] The growing international nature of the field was formalized in 1981 when Professors Tsun Ko (Ke Jun) and Bob Maddin established the international conference series "Beginnings of the Use of Metals and Alloys".[3]
Since 2000, the field has experienced rapid growth, particularly in China, with over 300 research papers on ancient Chinese metallurgy published in the first 15 years of the 21st century. This period has seen the emergence of a new generation of scholars, many trained in the West, and increased international collaboration through symposiums beyond the BUMA conferences.[3]
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