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Arabic calligraphy is the artistic practice ofhandwriting andcalligraphy based on theArabic alphabet. It is known inArabic askhatt (Arabic:خَطّ), derived from the words 'line', 'design', or 'construction'.[1][2]Kufic is the oldest form of theArabic script.
From an artistic point of view, Arabic calligraphy has been known and appreciated for its diversity and great potential for development. In fact, it has been linked inArabic culture to various fields such asreligion,art,architecture, education and craftsmanship, which in turn have played an important role in its advancement.[3]
Although mostIslamic calligraphy is in Arabic and most Arabic calligraphy is Islamic, the two are not identical.Coptic or otherChristian manuscripts in Arabic, for example, have made use of calligraphy. Likewise, there is Islamiccalligraphy in Persian andOttoman Turkish.[4]
TheArabic alphabet is one of the most widely used scripts in the world. Many scholars believe that the alphabet was created around the 4th century CE.[5] The alphabet consists of 28 letters written from right to left. Each letter can be written in four ways, depending on where the letter is placed in a word. These four locations are also known as initial, medial, final and isolated. All letters can connect from the right side (i.e. to the preceding letter), but some do not connect from the left side (i.e. to the subsequent letter).[6]
Three letters can also represent long vowels in certain contexts, namely ālif (ا), wāw (و), and yā (ي).[7]
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The pens used for Arabic calligraphy vary from Latin calligraphy. The tools used for calligraphy are different assortments of pens and calligraphy ink. The most common calligraphy pen used isQalam.[8][failed verification]
The Khamish pen also known as a reed pen is used by Arab, Turkish, and Iranian calligraphers. The reed of the pen is grown along rivers. Although this pen has been used for over 500 years, preparing the pen is a lengthy process.
TheJava pen is known for the tool's hardness and ability to create sharp edges. The pen is good to use for small scripts.
The Handam pen consists of the same strength as the Java pen. The pen is good to use for all kinds of scripts.[9]
The Celi pen is used for large writing in Arabic calligraphy. These pens are made from hardwood and cut and drilled.[10]
Arabic calligraphy evolved from a tool for communication and documentation to an artistic form in the span of 13 centuries, it was also implemented in various other fields such asmathematics andastronomy. It is a central form of decoration inIslamic art, such as decorative design and architecture. Historians considerQutba al-Muharrir to be the earliest Arab calligrapher.[11] The evolution of Arabic calligraphy led to the appearance of various scripts, including cursive styles such asNastaliq andRuq'ah, and more square, angular styles such asKufic. The linguistic features of Arabic scripts are shared between all scripts despite differences in styles.[12][better source needed]
Originally used for inscription on stone and metal, the Kufic style of Arabic calligraphy received its name due to its birth in the city ofKufa, Iraq. This script is one of the oldest scripts used in Arabic andIslamic calligraphy; due to this, the style has undergone many evolutions and changes in its life course, as many attempts were made to perfect it. However, this also led to the development of many different variations of this script, such as the floriated Kufic, square Kufic, knotted Kufic, and many others. This also means there are a few distinguishing features of the Kufic script.[13][better source needed]
The Kufic style has been used almost exclusively for Arabic, as opposed to other languages, such asPersian andUrdu, that are written in systems derived from Arabic; a single exception to this is a series of Persian rhymes found on a building inGhazni from the 11th century.[14]
Known as the Naskh or Naskhī script, this script is said to have originated fromMecca andMedina.[citation needed] The script is used as a cursive script, for example on papyrus and paper. The origins of the style are debated by scholars, but some believe it initially stemmed from theThuluth script.But recent discoveries in Jabal Sala in Medina have proven that the Naskh script precedes the Thuluth script and that it existed before Ibn Muqla al-Shirazi.[15] One of the main usages for this script was for writing theQuran but it was also used for inscription on metal antiquities, woods and other objects of decorative purpose. The main evolutionary periods for this script were the 3rd and 4th centuries AH, coinciding with the evolution of other similar popular styles such as theRayhani,Thulth, andMuhaqqaq.[13]
TheThuluth,Nasta'liq andDiwani scripts are other scripts used for Arabic scripting.
The Thuluth script, used during the medieval times, is known as one of the oldest scripts to exist. The script was used in mosques and for Quranic text due to the appearance of the text.
The Nasta'liq script is used more for Persian than Arabic scripting. Because of the downward slant to the left, the script is seen as different from the other scripts.[16]
The Diwani script was created during the Ottoman era. The lining and lettering of this script creates a sense of closeness when writing. Due to this reason, it is difficult to read since the letters intertwine.[16]
A few other examples:[13]
Arabic calligraphy serves as a major source of inspiration forArabic type design. For example, theAmiri typeface is inspired by theNaskh script used at theAmiri Press in Cairo.[19]
The shift from Arabic calligraphy to Arabictypefaces presents technical challenges.
Credited to be the one that catalyzed the growth of Arabic calligraphy; with the earliest works of Arabic calligraphy being featured in copies of theQuran dating back to the first century ofIslam's revelation such asBirmingham Quran Manuscript,[20]Codex Parisino-Petropolitanus[21] and several others.
Arabic calligraphy can be on occasion be found inMosques with engravings ofQuranic verses / Ayah present on parts of the architecture itself.[22]
The most widely recognized example of Arabic Calligraphy on a place of Islamic worship is the Kaaba present in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.[23]
Arabic calligraphy specializes into the termIslamic calligraphy when it is associated with the Islamic world.
EL Seed, a French-Tunisiangraffiti artist, makes use of Arabic calligraphy in his various art projects, in a style calledcalligraffiti.[24]
TheHurufiyya (الحروفيةletters) movement, since its beginnings in the early 20th century, uses the artistic manipulation of Arabic calligraphy and typography in abstraction.[25]
Taking Shape: Abstraction From the Arab World, 1950s-1980s, a 2020 installation at New York University'sGrey Art Gallery, explored how Arabic calligraphy, with its ancient presence in visual art, influencedabstract art in theArab world.[26] ForMadiha Omar, the Arabic alphabet was a means of expressing a secular identity and appropriatingWestern painting, whileOmar El-Nagdi explored the inherent divinity of Arabic calligraphy.[26]
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