ﺍﻟْﻤَﺴِﻴﺤِﻴُّﻮﻥ ﺍﻟْﻌَﺮَﺏ | |
|---|---|
 Greek Orthodox Easter inSuwayda, Syria | |
| Total population | |
| 10–15+ million[1] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Lebanon | 1,150,000–1,200,000[2][3] |
 Jordan | 250,000–400,000[4] |
 Syria | 300,000[5][6][7][8](Number was around 1,200,000-1,500,000 pre-Syrian civil war)[9] |
 Israel | 133,130[10] |
 Sudan | 100,000 excluding 500,000Copts[11] |
 Iraq | 50,000[3] excluding 1,500,000Assyrians[12] |
 Palestine | 50,000[13] excluding disputed territories |
 Algeria | 45,000–380,000[14] |
 Morocco | 40,000[15]–150,000[16] |
 Tunisia | 23,500[17] |
 Turkey | 18,000[18] |
 Egypt | 10,000[19]–350,000[3] excluding 6–11 millionCopts[20][21] |
 Libya | 1,500[22] |
 Bahrain | 1,000[23] |
 Yemen | 400[24] |
 Kuwait | 259–400[25] |
| Languages | |
| Arabic Liturgical:Coptic,Koine Greek,Latin,Classical Syriac,Classical Arabic | |
| Religion | |
| Greek Orthodox Church Catholic Church Oriental Orthodox Church Nestorianism Protestantism Restorationism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
[26][27] | |
Arab Christians (Arabic:ﺍﻟْﻤَﺴِﻴﺤِﻴُّﻮﻥ ﺍﻟْﻌَﺮَﺏ,romanized: al-Masīḥiyyūn al-ʿArab) are theArabs who adhere toChristianity. The number of Arab Christians who live in theMiddle East was estimated in 2012 to be between 10 and 15 million,[1] although most predominant inLebanon. Arab Christian communities can be found throughout theArab world, but are concentrated in theEastern Mediterranean region of theLevant andEgypt, with smaller communities present throughout theArabian Peninsula andNorth Africa.
The history of Arab Christians coincides with thehistory of Eastern Christianity and thehistory of the Arabic language; Arab Christian communities either result from pre-existing Christian communities adopting the Arabic language, or from pre-existing Arabic-speaking communities adopting Christianity. The jurisdictions of three of the fivepatriarchates of thePentarchy primarily became Arabic-speaking after theearly Muslim conquests – theChurch of Alexandria, theChurch of Antioch and theChurch of Jerusalem – and over time many of their adherents adopted the Arabic language and culture.[28] Separately, a number of early Arab kingdoms and tribes adopted Christianity, including theNabataeans,Lakhmids,Salihids,Tanukhids,Ibadis ofal-Hira, and theGhassanids.
In modern times, Arab Christians have played important roles in theNahda movement, and they have significantly influenced and contributed to the fields ofliterature, politics,[29] business,[29]philosophy,[30] music, theatre and cinema,[31] medicine,[32] and science.[33] Today Arab Christians still play important roles in the Arab world, and are relatively wealthy, well educated, and politically moderate.[34] Emigrants from Arab Christian communities also make up a significant proportion of the Middle Eastern diaspora, with sizable population concentrations across the Americas, most notably in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia, and the US. However those emigrants to the Americas, especially from the first wave of emigration, have often not passed the Arabic language to their descendants, having integrated into the majority-Christian communities to which they emigrated.[35]
The concept of an Arab Christian identity remains contentious, with some Arabic-speakingChristian groups in the Middle East, such asAssyrians,Armenians,Greeks and others, rejecting anArab identity. Individuals from Egypt'sCoptic Christian community and Lebanon'sMaronite community sometimes assume a non-Arab identity.[36][37]
The history of Arab Christians coincides with thehistory of Christianity and thehistory of the Arabic language; Arab Christian communities result either from pre-existing Christian communities adopting the Arabic language, or from pre-existing Arabic-speaking communities adopting Christianity. Arab Christians include theindigenous Christian communities of Western Asia who became majority Arabic-speaking after the consequent seventh-century Muslim conquests in theFertile Crescent.[38] The Christian Arab presence predates theearly Muslim conquests, and there were many Arab tribes that converted to Christianity, beginning in the 1st century.[39]
The interests of the Arabs before the 9th centuryA.D. were focused primarily on the recording and translating ofpre-Islamic poetry. The early Arab Christians recordedSyriac hymns, Arabic poetry,ecclesiastical melodies, proverbs, and ḥikam (rules of governance).[40] They did not otherwise record religion, which gave way to conflicting accounts and sparse evidence for specific practices over several centuries.[41]
Fromclassical antiquity to modern times, Arab Christians have played important roles contributing to the culture of theMashriq, in particular those in the Levant, Egypt and Iraq.
TheNew Testament has a biblical account of Arab conversion to Christianity recorded in theBook of Acts. WhenSaint Peter preaches to the people of Jerusalem, they ask,
And how hear we every man in our own tongue, wherein we were born?
[...]Arabians, we do hear them speak in our tongues the wonderful works of God. (Acts 2:8, 11KJV)
The first mention of Christianity in Arabia occurs in the New Testament as the Apostle Paul references his journey to Arabia following his conversion (Galatians 1: 15–17). Later,Eusebius discusses a bishop named Beryllus in the see ofBostra, the site of asynod c. 240 AD and twoCouncils of Arabia.[42]The New Testament signals an early entry of Christianity among the Arabs; in addition to what was narrated byal-Tabari,Abu al-Fida,al-Maqrizi,Ibn Khaldun andal-Masoudi, the disciples of Christ (includingMatthew,Bartholomew andThaddeus)[43] were the ones who went to Arabia as preachers of the religion.Sozomen ofGaza said that the Arabs converted to Christianity through the efforts of priests and monks who spread to Arab regions, and the strength of Christianity increased with the conversion of the major tribes. The religion was organised in manydioceses controlled bybishops andarchbishops. The Arab bishops were divided into types: urban bishops residing in cities, and “tent bishops” who resided in tents and moved with their tribes from one place to another. The number of Arab bishops among theNabataeans alone reached forty according toIbn Durayd.[44][45] The first Arab bishop of the Arabs,Saint Moses, spent many years in the 4th century as ahermit between Syria and Egypt.[46] His piety impressedMawiyya, Arab warrior-queen of theTanukhids, and she made his consecration as a bishop over her people a condition to any truce with Rome.[47]
TheJordan Valley and theBalqa was under Arab Christian rule by the second century AD. TheNabataeans, natives of the southern Levant, also converted to Christianity in theLate Roman Period. InPalmyra and nearal-Qaryatayn there are Christian monuments and the remains of churches and inscriptions that indicate the spread of the religion intoSyria proper.[48][49] The administration ofJordan under Roman rule was given to theQuda'a tribe. This tribe had embraced Christianity according toYa'qubi, and were later succeeded by the ChristianSalihids andGhassanid Kingdom.[50][51] There are poetic verses by the pre-Islamic poetal-Nabigha in which he praises the kings of Ghassan, congratulating them onPalm Sunday. Bordering Syria, theSinai was administratively affiliated with theEgyptian Church based inAlexandria. There are documents from the late third century ofDionysius,Pope of Alexandria, in which he mentions his Arab Christian subjects in the Sinai and thepersecution they faced during the days of the pagan Roman emperorDiocletian.[52][53] Later, forty martyrs fell in 309 inMount Sinai during a raid by pagan Arabs on theirhermitages. The monks fortified their new monasteries, and the most fortified is still in use today,Saint Catherine's Monastery, built by the commission of Roman emperorJustinian in 565. It has hosted a number of Church bishops and theologians, Ghassanid and Lakhmid kings, and pre-Islamic poets.[54]
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The southern Arabian city ofNajran was made famous by the religiouspersecution of Christians by one of the kings of Yemen,Dhu Nuwas, who was an enthusiastic convert toJudaism. The leader of the Arabs of Najran during the period, al-Ḥārith, was canonized by theCatholic Church asArethas. Aretas was the leader of the Christians of Najran in the early 6th century and was executed during themassacre of Christians by the king in 523.[55]Ibn Khaldun,Ibn Hisham andYaqut al-Hamawi mentioned thatNajran was entirely Christian when Dhu al-Nawasconverted to Judaism, and that the people of Najran refused to convert to his faith, so he massacred them. The victims were mentioned byIbn Ishaq and named in the Quran as the "People of the Ditch".[56] The Byzantine emperorJustin I was enraged and encouragedKaleb of Axum to occupy Yemen and eliminate the Jewish king. Dhu al-Nawas was later deposed and killed, prompting Kaleb to appoint a native Christian Himyarite,Sumyafa Ashwa, as his viceroy.[57] The Aksumites thus conqueredHimyar and their rule lasted until 575. TheAbyssinians spread Christianity and their rulers built an extravagant building in honor of the Martyrs of Najran. It was known by its contemporaries for its beauty, adorned with ornaments, jewels, and prominent archways. Arabs called it the “Kaaba of Najran”.[58] The Yemenis later rebelled against the Abyssinians and demanded independence.[59][60] History records Christian influence fromEthiopia to Arab lands in pre-Islamic times, and someEthiopian Christians may have lived inMecca.[61]
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Yemen had an important share in ancient Christianity. In the second century, the Greek theologianPantaenus left Alexandria and headed towards Yemen as a missionary after his conversion.[62] Historians such asRufinus andOrosius mentioned thatMatthew the Apostle was the missionary of Yemen and Abyssinia.[63] A special relationship developed between the people of Yemen and theSyrian Church, as inferred by the works ofEphrem the Syrian, the biography ofSimeon Stylites, and the historianPhilostorgius, who said that some villages and settlements established in Yemen wereSyriac-speaking. The famousAl-Qalis Church inSana'a was built to serve aderents and to attract pilgrims travelling to theKaaba of Mecca andGhamdan Palace.[64] On the organizational level, the Archbishop of Yemen held the title "Catholicos" which follows the "Patriarch" in rank.[65] The spread of Christianity amongst Arabs reachedUpper Mesopotamia, whereBanu Bakr and Banu Mudar lived, both famous for their staunch Christian beliefs and for honoring Sergius theMilitary Saint.[66]Ibn Khallikan mentioned that all the Yemeni Arabs in Iraq converted to Christianity, includingTaym al-Lat,Kalb,Lakhm andTanukh, and many had moved towardsBahrain by the fourth century.[67]
InMedina there was a Christian sect that was rejected by the official church and considered heretical. They deified theVirgin Mary and gave her offerings. This sect was mentioned by a number of historians, includingEpiphanius andIbn Taymiyya, who called them "The Marians" (Al-Maryamiyyun). Likewise,al-Zamakhshari andal-Baydawi referred to this sect in theirinterpretation of the Qur’an.[68] Another sect called "The Davidians" (Al-Dāwudiyyūn) were known for their exaggerations in honoringKing David. Some contemporary historians classified it as aJudeo-Christian heresy.[69] InMecca, theBanu Jurhum embraced Christianity at the hands of their sixth king, Abd al-Masih ibn Baqia, and supervised the service ofthe Haram for a period of time.[70]Banu Azd andBanu Khuza’a became Christians with them according toAbu al-Faraj al-Isfahani.[71] The earliest indications of Christianity in Mecca is the Christian cemetery outside the Medina towards the well of 'Anbasa, confirmed byal-Maqdisi, as well as the conversion to Christianity by some members of theQuraysh.[72]
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Following the fall of large portions of former Byzantine and Sasanian provinces to the Arab armies, a large indigenous Christian population of varying ethnicities came under Arab Muslim dominance. Historically, a number of minority Christian sects were persecuted asheretic under Byzantine rule (such asnon-Chalcedonians). The Islamic conquests set forth two processes affecting these Christian communities: the process of Arabization, causing them gradually to adopt Arabic as a spoken, literary, and liturgical language (often alongside their ancestral tongues), and the much slower, yet persistent process of Islamization.[74] As Muslim army commanders expanded their empire and attacked countries in Asia, North Africa and southern Europe, they would offer three conditions to their enemies: convert to Islam, payjizya (tax) every year, or face war to death. Those who refused war and refused to convert were deemed to have agreed to pay jizya.[75][76]
As "People of the Book",Islamic law accorded Christians the right to practice their religion (including having Christian law used for rulings, settlements or sentences in court). In contrast toMuslims, who paid thezakat, they paid thejizyacapitation tax. The jizya was not levied on slaves, women, children, monks, the old, the sick,hermits, or the very poor.[77] In return, non-Muslim citizens were permitted to practice their faith, to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy, to be entitled to Muslim state's protection from outside aggression, to be exempted frommilitary service, and to be exempted from thezakat.[78][79] LikeArab Muslims, Arab Christians refer to God as "Allah".[80][81] As with the Christians ofMalta, this practice is distinguished from the Islamic use of the word "Allah" which refers to the personal name of God in that faith.[82] The use of the term Allah in Arab churches predatesIslam.[80]
During theIslamic Golden Age, Christianscontributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields,[83][84] and the institution known as theHouse of Wisdom employedChristian scholars to translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.[85]
Arab Christians have always been the go-between the Islamic world and the Christian West due to their shared religious affinity. The Greek Orthodox shareOrthodox ties with Russia andGreece; whilstMelkites andMaronites shareCatholic bonds with Italy,Vatican and France.[86] Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians in the Arab world have made significant contributions to Arab civilization since the introduction of Islam, and they have had a notable impact contributing the culture of theMashriq.[87][86] Many Arab Christians today are physicians, entertainers, philosophers, government officials and people of literature.[29]
TheNahda (meaning "the Awakening" or "theRenaissance") was a cultural renaissance of the Arabs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It began in the wake of the exit ofMuhammad Ali of Egypt from theLevant in 1840.[88]Beirut,Cairo,Damascus andAleppo were the main centers of the renaissance and this led to the establishment of schools, universities, theater and printing presses. This awakening led to the emergence of a politically active movement known as the "association" that was accompanied by the birth ofArab nationalism and the demand for reformation in theOttoman Empire. This led to the calling of the establishment of modern states based on Europe.[89] It was during this stage that the first compound of the Arabic language was introduced along with the printing of it in letters, and later the movement influenced the fields of music, sculpture, history, humanities, economics and human rights.
This cultural renaissance during the late Ottoman rule was a quantum leap for Arabs in the post-industrial revolution, and is not limited to the individual fields of cultural renaissance in the nineteenth century, as the Nahda only extended to include the spectrum of society and the fields as a whole. Christian colleges (accepting of all faiths) likeSaint Joseph University,American University of Beirut (Syrian Protestant College until 1920) andAl-Hikma University inBaghdad amongst others played a prominent role in the development of Arab culture.[90] It is agreed amongst historians the importance the roles played by the Arab Christians in this renaissance, and their role in the prosperity through participation in the diaspora.[91][29] Given this role in politics and culture, Ottoman ministers began to include them in their governments. In the economic sphere, a number of Christian families like the Greek OrthodoxSursock family became prominent. Thus, the Nahda led the Muslims and Christians to a cultural renaissance and national general despotism. This solidified Arab Christians as one of the pillars of the region and not a minority on the fringes.[92]
The Lebanese writer and scholarButrus al-Bustani is considered to have been the first Syrian nationalist. Syrian writers include scholarFrancis Marrash. The tradition ofwomen's literary salons and societies in the Arab world was revived during the Nahda byMaryana Marrash.
Notable academics in the modern era include the Syrian philologistIbrahim al-Yaziji (1847–1906), whoseBible translations were among the first in the modernArabic language, andAnastase-Marie al-Karmali (1866–1947), Iraqi Catholic priest and Discalced Carmelite friar best known for his contributions to Arabic lexicology, lexicography and philology.
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![Mary Ajami (1888–1965), Syrian writer who launched the first women's newspaper in the Arab world[93]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMary_Ajami.jpg)
TheMassacre of Aleppo of 1850, often referred to simply as The Events, was a riot perpetrated byMuslim residents ofAleppo, largely from the eastern quarters of the city, againstChristian residents, largely located in the northern suburbs of the predominantly Christian neighbourhoodJudayde (Jdeideh) and Salibeh. The Events are considered by historians to be particularly important in Aleppian history, for they represent the first time disturbances pitted Muslims against Christians in the region. The patriarch of theSyriac Catholic Church,Peter VII Jarweh, was fatally wounded in the attacks and died a year later. 20–70 people died from rioting and 5,000 died as a result of bombardment.[94]
The1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus was a civil conflict and latermassacre duringOttoman rule, started by skirmishes occurring between theMaronites and theDruze ofMount Lebanon. Following decisive victories and massacres against Christians, the conflict spilled over into other parts ofOttoman Syria, particularly the cityDamascus, where over ten thousand Christian residents of various denominations were killed by Druze and Muslim militiamen. With the connivance of the military authorities and Turkish soldiers, Druze and allied paramilitary groups organisedpogroms in Damascus which lasted three days (9–11 July).[95] By the war's end, around 20,000 Christians had been killed, and many villages and churches were destroyed. The Christian quarter of old Damascus was destroyed and houses were plundered. HistorianMikhail Mishaqa's memoir of the massacre is valuable to historians, as it is the only account written by a survivor of a mob attack.[96]Emir Abdelkader al-Jazairi, the exiled Algerian Muslim military leader, ordered his sons and soldiers to protect and shelter Damascene Christians from impending interpersonal violence that was spreading throughout the city, thereby saving thousands, preserving this ancient community from complete devastation.[97][98]
Melkite Greek Catholic andMaronite Christians suffered negligence from theOttoman authorities and a naval blockade from France and Britain, resulting in theGreat Famine of Mount Lebanon (1915–1918) duringWorld War I, which ran in conjunction with theArmenian genocide, theAssyrian genocide and theGreek genocide. The Mount Lebanon famine caused the highest fatality rate by population duringWorld War I.[99] Around 200,000 people starved to death when the population of Mount Lebanon was estimated to be 400,000 people.[100] TheLebanese diaspora in Egypt funded the shipping of food supplies to Mount Lebanon, sent via the Syrian Island town ofArwad.[101] On 26 May 1916, Lebanese-American writerKahlil Gibran wrote a letter[99] toMary Haskell that read:
The famine in Mount Lebanon has been planned and instigated by the Turkish government. Already 80,000 have succumbed to starvation and thousands are dying every single day. The same process happened withthe Christian Armenians and applied to the Christians in Mount Lebanon.
Arab Christians had been among the first Arab nationalists. As early as 1877, the Maronite leaderYoussef Bey Karam had proposed toEmir Abdelkader the separation of the Arabic-speaking provinces from the Ottoman Empire using the termsal-gins al-'arabi ("Arab race") andgaba'il al-arabiya ("Arab tribes").[103][104] In the early 20th century, many prominentArab nationalists were Christians, like theSyrian intellectualConstantin Zureiq,[105]Ba'athism proponentMichel Aflaq,[106] andJurji Zaydan,[107] who was reputed to be the first Arab nationalist.Khalil al-Sakakini, a prominent PalestinianJerusalemite, was Arab Orthodox, as wasGeorge Antonius, Lebanese author ofThe Arab Awakening.[108][109]Grégoire Haddad, known as the "Red Bishop of Beirut", founded the "Lebanese Social Movement" withShiiteImamMusa al-Sadr in 1960, and promoted in the following years Islamic-Christian dialogue.[110][111] The firstSyrian nationalists were also Christian. Although Lebanese,Antoun Saadeh was the founder behind theSyrian Social Nationalist Party. Sa'adeh rejectedPan-Arabism and argued instead for the creation of a"United Syrian Nation" or "Natural Syria".George Habash, founder of thePopular Front for the Liberation of Palestine was Arab Orthodox, and so wasWadie Haddad, the leader of the PFLP's armed wing. Influential Palestinian Christians such asTawfik Toubi,Daud Turki,Emile Touma andEmile Habibi became leaders of the Israeli and Palestiniancommunist party.[112]Nayif Hawatmeh is the founder and leader of theDemocratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, andKamal Nasser andHanan Ashrawi were members of thePLO Executive Committee.[113]
During the1948 Arab–Israeli War, a number of Palestinian Greek Orthodox and Melkite communities were ethnically cleansed and driven out of their towns, includingal-Bassa,Ramla,Lod,Safed,Kafr Bir'im,Iqrit,Tarbikha,Eilabun andHaifa. Many Christian towns or neighborhoods were ethnically cleansed and destroyed during the period between 1948 and 1953. All the Christian residents ofSafed,Beisan,Tiberias were removed, and a big percentage displaced inHaifa,Jaffa,Lydda andRamleh.[114] Arab ChristianConstantin Zureiq was the first to coin the term"Nakba" in reference to the 1948 Palestinian exodus.[115]
In 1975, theLebanese Civil War occurred between two broad camps, the mainly Christian 'rightist'Lebanese Front consisting of Maronites and Melkites, and the mainly Muslim and Arab nationalist 'leftist'National Movement, supported by the Druze, Greek Orthodox and the Palestinian community. The war was characterized by the kidnap, rape and massacre of those caught in the wrong place as each side eliminated 'enemy' enclaves – mainly Christian or Muslim low-income areas.[116] In Lebanon, Maronites and Melkites looked to France and the Mediterranean world, whereas most Muslims and Greek Orthodox Christians looked to the Arab hinterland as their political lodestar.[117][118] In 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon with the aim of destroying thePLO, which it besieged inWest Beirut. Israel was later obliged to withdraw as a result of multiple guerrilla attacks by theLebanese National Resistance Front and increasing hostility across all forces in Lebanon to their presence.[116]
With the events of theArab Spring, the Syrian Arab Christian community was heavily hit in line with other Christian communities of Syria, being victimized by the war and specifically targeted as a minority by Jihadist forces. Many Christians, including Arab Christians, were displaced or fled Syria over the course of theSyrian Civil War. When the conflict in Syria began, it was reported that Christians were cautious and avoided taking sides, but that due to the increased violence and ISIL's growth, Arab Christians showed support for Assad, fearing that if Assad was overthrown, they would be targeted. Christians supported the Assad regime based on the fear that the end of the current government could lead to instability.The Carnegie Middle East Center stated that the majority of Christians were more in support of the regime because they feared a chaotic situation or to be under the control of the Islamist Western andTurkish backed armed groups.[119][120][121]
Arab Christians throughout history have been noted for their impact on academia and literature.[29][122] Arabic-speakingChristian scholars wrote extensivetheological andphilosophical works and treatises in Arabic in which they not only responded to the polemics of their Muslim adversaries,[123] but also provided systematic apologetic discussions of the Christian faith and practice.[124] There are manyNew Testament translations or portions into regional colloquial forms of Arabic.[125] In the 20th century, the noted Palestinian physician andethnographerTawfiq Canaan's academic work serves as valuable resources to researchers of Palestinian history.[126] Jordanian historianSuleiman Mousa was the only author to write aboutLawrence of Arabia and show the Arab perspective. Mousa noted that there were many books written to praise Lawrence, and all of them exaggerated his part in theArab Revolt and failed to do justice to the Arabs themselves.[127] Syrian writerHanna Mina has been described inLiterature from the "Axis of Evil" as the country's most prominent.[128]
Christians developed Arabic-speakingChristian media, including various newspapers, radio stations, and television networks such asTélé Lumière,Aghapy TV,CTV, andSAT-7, which is a Christian broadcasting network that was founded in 1995; it targets primarily Arab Christians inNorth Africa and the Middle East.[129] These media networks produce dozens of Arabic-languageChristian films, musical works, as well as radio and television programs.[129]
Syro-Lebanese MelkiteSaleem Takla and his brother Beshara founded theAl-Ahram newspaper in 1875 inAlexandria; now the most widely circulated Egyptian daily newspaper.[130] Similarly, Lebanese ProtestantFaris Nimr co-foundedAl Muqattam in 1888, a leadingCairo-based newspaper in circulation until 1954. In Palestine,Najib Nassar's newspaperAl-Karmil was the firstanti-Zionist weekly newspaper. It appeared inHaifa in 1908 and was shut down by theBritish in the 1940s.[131] Likewise, the Arab OrthodoxEl-Issa family fromJaffa founded theFalastin newspaper in 1911. The paper was Palestine's most consistent critic of the early Zionist movement. In Lebanon, the influential Greek OrthodoxTueni family founded theAn-Nahar newspaper in 1933, also one of the leading newspapers today.[132][133]Shireen Abu Akleh worked as a reporter for theArabic-language channelAl Jazeera for 25 years.
Popular Lebanese singerFairuz has over 150 million records sold worldwide, making her the highest selling Middle-Eastern artist of all time.[134] Other Lebanese singers includeMajida El Roumi, legendary folk veteranWadih El Safi, and "Queen of Arab pop"Nancy Ajram.[135][136] Syrian notables includeGeorge Wassouf andNassif Zeytoun.[137][138] Palestinians includeLina Makhul,Fadee Andrawos, and Israeli singerMira Awad.[139][140]
Millions of people are descended from Arab Christians and they live outside the Middle East, in theArab diaspora. They mainly reside in theAmericas, but many people of Arab Christian descent also reside inEurope,Africa andOceania. Among them, one million Palestinian Christians live in thePalestinian diaspora and 6–7 millionBrazilians are estimated to have Lebanese ancestry.[141] Mass Arab immigration started in the 1890s as Lebanese and Syrian people fled from the political and economic instability which was caused by thecollapse of the Ottoman Empire. These early immigrants were known as Syro-Lebanese, Lebanese and Palestinians, orTurks.[142] According to theUnited States census, there were at least 3.5 million Arabs living in the United States in the year 2000, with around 40% of them originating fromLebanon.[143] The majority of them are members of the Christian faith, making up 63% of the overallArab American population.[143][144]
Historical events that caused the mass-emigration of Arab Christians include: the1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus, the1915–1918 Great Famine of Mount Lebanon, the1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight, the1956–57 exodus and expulsions from Egypt, theLebanese civil war, and theIraq war.[145][146]
TheMahjar (one of its more literal meanings being "the Arab diaspora") was a literary movement that succeeded the Nahda movement. It was started by Christian Arabic-speaking writers who had emigrated to America from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine at the turn of the 20th century.[147] The writers of the Mahjar movement were stimulated by their personal encounter with the Western world and participated in the renewal of Arabic literature, hence their proponents referred to as writers of the "late Nahda".[148]
The Pen League was the first Arabic-languageliterary society in North America, formed initially by SyriansNasib Arida andAbd al-Masih Haddad. Members of the Pen League included:Kahlil Gibran,Elia Abu Madi,Mikhail Naimy, andAmeen Rihani.[149] Eight out of the ten members wereGreek Orthodox and two wereMaronite Christians.[150] The league dissolved following Gibran's death in 1931 andMikhail Naimy's return toLebanon in 1932.[151] Naimy was made famous internationally for his spiritual writings, most notablyThe Book of Mirdad.
Notablediaspora figures includeSwiss businessman ofLebanese Greek Orthodox descentNicolas Hayek, andMexican business magnate ofMaronite descent,Carlos Slim. From 2010 to 2013, Slim was ranked as therichest person in the world by theForbes magazine.[152] Figures in entertainment include actorsOmar Sharif (Melkite-born),Jamie Farr,Salma Hayek,Tony Shalhoub,Vince Vaughn,Danny Thomas,Oscar award winnerF. Murray Abraham and film directorYoussef Chahine. Figures in academics include plant biologistJoanne Chory, scholarNassim Nicholas Taleb,[153] cardiac and vascular surgeonMichael DeBakey,[154] inventor of theiPod and co-inventor of theiPhoneTony Fadell,[155] mathematicianMichael Atiyah,[156] professorCharles Elachi, intellectualEdward Said, andNobel Prize winner in ChemistryElias James Corey[157] andNobel Prize winner in Physiology or MedicinePeter Medawar.[158][159] Other notables includeWhite House reporterHelen Thomas, activist and presidential candidateRalph Nader, judgeRosemary Barkett,[160] and US governor and academic administratorMitch Daniels.
Arab Christians mainly belong to theGreek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem,Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, Melkite Greek Catholic Church,Maronite Church, andOriental Orthodox Churches, though some are also members of other churches, including the Catholic Latin Church andProtestant Churches, such as the Lutheran, Anglican, and Reformed traditions.[161] Some memberships are mixed, not by co-identification, but by including two or more members of multiple ethnicities (Arab and otherwise).
The issue of self-identification arises regarding specific Christian communities across the Arab world. A significant proportion of Maronitesclaim descent from the Phoenicians, whilst a significant proportion of Copts claim that theydescend from the Ancient Egyptians.[36][218]
The designation "Greek" in theGreek Orthodox Church and Melkite Greek Catholic Church refers to the use ofKoine Greek inliturgy, used today alongside Arabic. As a result, the Greek dominated clergy was commonplace serving the Arabic speaking Christians, the majority who couldn't speak Greek. Some viewed Greek rule as cultural imperialism and demanded emancipation from Greek control, as well as the abolishment of the centralized structure of the institution via Arab inclusion in decision-making processes.[219]
The struggle for the Arabization of theEastern Orthodox Church against the Greek clerical hegemony in Palestine led Orthodox Christian intellectuals to rebel against the Church's Greek dominated hierarchy. The rebellion was divided between those who sought a common Ottoman cause against European intrusions and those who identified with Arab nationalism against pan-Turkic (Ottoman) nationalism.[220] Its main advocates were well known community leaders and writers in Palestine, such as Ya'qub Farraj,Khalil al-Sakakini, Yusuf al-Bandak (publisher ofSawtal-Sha'b) and cousinsYousef andIssa El-Issa (founders ofFalastin). The cousins were among the first to elucidate the Arab struggle against the Greek clerical hegemony of theChurch of Jerusalem. Both Sakakini and El-Issa argued that the Palestinian and the Syrian (Antiochian) community constituted an oppressed majority, controlled and manipulated by a minority Greek clergy.[221]
There have been numerous disputes between the Arab and the Greek leadership of the church in Jerusalem from the Mandate onwards.[222][223] Jordan encouraged the Greeks to open the Brotherhood to Arab members of the community between 1948 and 1967 when theWest Bank was under Jordanian rule.[222] Land and political disputes have been common since 1967, with the Greek priests portrayed as collaborators with Israel. Land disputes include the sale of St. John's property in the Christian quarter, the transfer of fiftydunams nearMar Elias Monastery, and the sale of two hotels and twenty-seven stores onOmar Bin Al-Khattab square near theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre.[222] A dispute between thePalestinian Authority and the GreekPatriarch Irenaios led to the Patriarch being dismissed and demoted because of accusations of a real estate deal with Israel. It was later ruled uncanonical byPatriarch Bartholomew.[224]
The homeland of theAntiochian Greek Christians, known as theDiocese of the East, was one of the major commercial, agricultural, religious, and intellectual areas of the Roman Empire, and its strategic location facing the Persian Sassanid Empire gave it exceptional military importance.[225] They are either members of theGreek Orthodox Church of Antioch or the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, and they have ancient roots in theLevant; more specifically, the territories ofSyria,Lebanon,Jordan andHatay, which includes the city ofAntakya (ancientAntioch). Antiochian Greeks constitute a multi-national group of people and thus construct their identity in relation to specific historical moments. Analyzing cultural identity as a conscious construction is more helpful than a simple labelling of ethnicity, thus the identity is assumed to accentuate the separate origin unique to the ChristianRūm (literally "Eastern Romans") of theLevant.[226] Some members of the community also call themselvesMelkite, which means "monarchists" or "supporters of the emperor" (a reference to their past allegiance to Macedonian andRoman imperial rule) although in the modern era, that term tends to be more commonly used by followers of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church.[227]
The Orthodox Christian congregation was included in an ethno-religious community,Rum Millet ("Roman nation"), during theOttoman Empire. Its name was derived from the former Eastern Roman (Byzantine) subjects of the Ottoman Empire, but all OrthodoxGreeks,Bulgarians,Albanians,Aromanians,Megleno-Romanians andSerbs, as well asGeorgians andMiddle Eastern Christians, were considered part of the samemillet in spite of their differences in ethnicity and language. Belonging to this Orthodox commonwealth became more important to the common people than their ethnic origins.[228]
%2c_%2522Chaldeans%2522_(7)_and_%2522Jacobites%2522_(8)%2c_in_Maunsell%2527s_map%2c_Pre-World_War_I_British_Ethnographical_Map_of_eastern_Turkey_in_Asia%2c_Syria_and_western_Persia_01_(cropped).jpg)
The former Patriarch of the Chaldean Church,Emmanuel III Delly, made the following comment in a 2006 interview:
"Any Chaldean who calls himself an Assyrian is a traitor and any Assyrian who calls himself Chaldean is a traitor."[229]
The Chaldean Church, which had been part of the Nestorian Church, or Church of the East, until 1552–3, began in earnest to distance itself from the Nestorians who were now seen as the 'uncouth Assyrians'. During this period, many Chaldeans began identifying themselves solely by their religious community, and later as Iraqis, Iraqi Christians, or Arab Christians, rather than with the Assyrian community as a whole. The first split for the two groups came in 431, when they broke away from what was to become the Catholic Church over a theological dispute.[230] The reverberation of religious animosity between these communities still continues today, a testament to the machinations of power politics in the nation-building of the Middle East.[231] The Iraqi Chaldeans positioned themselves deliberately as a religious group within the Arab Iraqi nation. The Arab identity of the state was not only acceptable to them, but was even staunchly endorsed. The Arab nationalism they supported did not discriminate according to religion and was therefore also acceptable to them.[217] Today, due to both forced and accepted Arabization, many Chaldeans identify themselves situationally as Arabs.[231]
TheAssyrians form the majority of Christians inIraq, northeastSyria, south-eastTurkey and north-westIran. They are specifically defined asnon-Arabindigenous ethnic group, including by the governments of Iraq, Lebanon, Iran, Syria, Israel, and Turkey.[232]
_-_A_bag_pipe_orchestra_from_Bethlehem_playing_in_the_streets_of_the_city.jpg)
Christianity in the Middle East represents a large part of the region's diverse culture mosaic.[233] The region includes the oldest Christian monuments in addition to the liturgy andhymns that have spread since the second century AD throughout the region.[234]Translations of the Bible into Arabic are known from the early Christian churches in the Levant, Egypt, Mesopotamia,Malta, theMaghreb, andAl-Andalus. Christians produced hundreds of manuscripts containing portions of the Bible in Arabic.[235] Christian Arabs celebrate various holy days, including theFeast of the Cross,Eid il-Burbara,Christmas, theFeast of St. George, and the Feast of theProphet Elijah. In Christian traditions,Sergius and Bacchus are considered the patron saints of Arabs.[236]
There are no major cultural differences between Christian Arabs and the general Arab environment.[237] Some differences arise from religious differences, for example, customs and traditions related tomarriage orburial. Also, in social events in which the participants are Christians,alcoholic beverages are often served (apart from those denominations that encourageteetotalism), unlike what is prevalent in most Arab societies becauseIslamic law forbids strong drink.[238]Christian cuisine is similar to otherMiddle Eastern cuisines; unlike inJewish cuisine andIslamic cuisines in the region,pork is allowed among Arab Christians, though it is not widely consumed.Male circumcision is near-universal among Christian Arabs,[239][240] and they practice it shortly after birth as part of arite of passage,[241] though the practice ofcircumcision was dropped in the New Testament, meaning that the mainstream Churches do not oblige their followers to do so.[242] In someEastern Christian denominations, such asCoptic Christianity,[243]male circumcision is an established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision shortly after birth as part of arite of passage.[244][245]
Arab Christian communities can be found throughout theArab world.
Christianity came to Algeria in theRoman era, and declined after the arrival of Islam in the 7th century. A notableBerber Christian of Algeria wasSaint Augustine and his motherSaint Monica, important saints in Christianity. Prior toindependence from France in 1962, Algeria was home to 1.4 millionpieds-noirs (ethnic Europeans who were mostly Catholic).[246] Arguably, many more Maghrebi Christians live in France than in North Africa, due to the exodus of thepieds-noirs in the 1960s.
In 2009, the percentage of Christians in Algeria was less than 2%. In this same survey, theUnited Nations counted 100,000 Catholics and 45,000 Protestants in the country.[247] A 2015 study estimates 380,000 Muslims converted toChristianity in Algeria.[248] Conversions have been most common in the region ofKabylie.[249]Charles de Foucauld was renowned for his missions in Algeria among Muslims, including Arabs.
Native Christians who hold Bahraini citizenship number approximately 1,000.[250] The majority of Christians are originally fromIraq,Palestine andJordan, with a small minority having lived in Bahrain for many centuries; the majority have been living as Bahraini citizens for less than a century. There are also smaller numbers of native Christians who originally hail fromLebanon,Syria, and India. The majority of Christian Bahraini citizens tend to beOrthodox Christians, with the largest church by membership being theGreek Orthodox Church. They enjoy many equal religious and social freedoms. Bahrain has Christian members in the Bahraini government.
TheCopts in Egypt constitute the largestChristian community in the Middle East, as well as the largest religious minority in the region, accounting for an estimated 10% of Egyptian population.[251]
Since antiquity, there has always been a Levantine presence in Egypt, however they started becoming a distinctive minority in Egypt around the early 18th century. TheSyro-Lebanese Christians of Egypt were highly influenced byEuropean culture and established churches, printing houses and businesses across Egypt. Their aggregate wealth was reckoned at one and a half billion francs, 10% of the Egyptian GDP at the end of the 20th century. They took advantage of the Egyptian constitution that established the juridical equality of all citizens and granted the Syro-Lebanese Christians the fullness of civil rights, prior to theNasser reforms.[252][253]
The Arab Christian community in Iraq is relatively small, and further dwindled due to theIraq War to just several hundred thousand. Most Arab Christians in Iraq belong traditionally to Greek Orthodox and Catholic Churches and are concentrated in major cities such asBaghdad,Basra andMosul. The vast majority of the remaining 450,000 to 900,000 Christians in Iraq areAssyrians.[254]
Significant persecution ofIraqi Christians inMosul and other areas held byISIS occurred from 2014 onwards, with Christian houses identified as"N" for "Nasrani" (Christian).[255]
In December 2009, 122,000 Arab Christians lived in Israel, asArab citizens of Israel, out of a total of 151,700 Christian citizens.[256] According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, on the eve of Christmas 2013, there were approximately 161,000 Christians in Israel, about 2 percent of the general population in Israel. 80% of the Christians are Arab[257] with smaller Christian communities of ethnic Russians, Ukrainians,Greeks,Armenians, andAssyrians.[258] As of 2014 the Melkite Greek Catholic Church was the largest Christian community in Israel, where about 60% ofIsraeli Christians belonged to the Melkite Greek Catholic Church,[259] while around 30% of Israeli Christians belonged to theGreek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem.[259] The Christian communities in Israel run numerousschools, colleges, hospitals, clinics, orphanages, homes for the elderly,dormitories, family and youth centers,hotels, and guesthouses.[260]
The city ofNazareth has the largest Arab Christian community in Israel, followed by the cities ofHaifa,Jerusalem andShefa-Amr.[261][262] The Christian Arab communities in Nazareth and Haifa tend to be wealthier and better educated than Arabs elsewhere in Israel.[263][264] Christians live in a number of other towns inGalilee either singly or mixed withMuslims andDruze, such asAbu Snan,Arraba,Bi'ina,Daliyat al-Karmel,Deir Hanna,Eilabun,Hurfeish,I'billin,Isfiya,Jadeidi-Makr,Jish,Kafr Kanna,Kafr Yasif,Kisra-Sumei,Maghar,Mazra'a,Muqeible,Peki'in,Rameh,Ras al-Ein,Reineh,Sakhnin,Shefa-Amr,Tur'an,Yafa an-Naseriyye and others have a presence of Arab Christian communities too as do other mixed cities, especiallyJerusalem andTel Aviv-Jaffa,Ramleh,Lod,Acre,Nof HaGalil, andMa'alot Tarshiha.[265] It is reported that all the inhabitants ofFassuta andMi'ilya areMelkiteChristians.[266]
Arab Christians are one of the most educated groups in Israel.Maariv has described the Christian Arab sectors as "the most successful in the education system".[267] Statistically,Christian Arabs in Israel have the highest rates ofeducational attainment among all religious communities. According to a data byIsrael Central Bureau of Statistics in 2010, 63% of IsraeliChristian Arabs have had college orpostgraduate education, the highest of any religious andethno-religious group.[268] Christian Arabs also have one of the highest rates of success in the matriculation examinationsper capita, (73.9%) in 2016 both in comparison toMuslims,Druze,Jews and all students in the Israeli education system as a group. Arab Christians were also the vanguard in terms of eligibility for higher education.[269][270][271] They have attained abachelor's degree andacademic degree more than Jewish, Muslims and Druzeper capita.[269] The rate of students studying in the field of medicine was also higher among the Christian Arab students, compared with all the students from other sectors.[269] Despite the fact that Arab Christians only represent 2.1% of the total Israeli population,[272] in 2014 they accounted for 17.0% of the country's university students, and for 14.4% of its college students.[273] Socio-economically, Arab Christians are closer to the Jewish population than to the Muslim population.[274] They have the lowest incidence of poverty and the lowest percentage of unemployment which is 4.9% compared to 6.5% among Jewish men and women.[275] They have also the highestmedian household income amongArab citizens of Israel and second highest median household income among the Israeli ethno-religious groups.[276] According to study the majority of Christians in Israel (68.2 per cent) are employed in the service sector, i.e. banks, insurance companies, schools, tourism, hospitals etc.[260] Among Arab Christians in Israel, some emphasizepan-Arabism, whilst a small minority enlists in theIsrael Defense Forces.[277][278]
Jordan contains some of the oldest Christian communities in the world, their presence dating back to the first century AD. Today, Christians make up about 4% of the population, down from 20% in 1930.[279] This is due to high immigration rates of Muslims into Jordan, higher emigration rates of Christians to the west and higher birth rates for Muslims.[280] Christians in Jordan are exceptionally well integrated in the Jordanian society and enjoy a high level of freedom.[281] Christians are allotted nine out of a total of 130 seats in theParliament of Jordan, and also hold important ministerial portfolios, ambassadorial appointments, and positions of high military rank. All Christian religious ceremonies are publicly celebrated in Jordan.[282]
Jordanian Arab Christians (some have Palestinian roots since 1948) number around 221,000, according to a 2014 estimate by the Orthodox Church. The study excluded minority Christian groups and the thousands of western, Iraqi and Syrian Christians residing in Jordan.[283] Another estimate suggests the Orthodox number 125–300,000, Catholics at 114,000 and Protestants at 30,000 for a total 270–450,000. Most native Christians in Jordan identify themselves as Arab, though there are also significant Assyrian and Armenian populations in the country. There has also been an influx of Christian refugees escapingDaesh, mainly fromMosul,Iraq, numbering about 7000[284] and 20,000 fromSyria.[285]King Abdullah II of Jordan has made firm statements[286] about Arab Christians:
"Let me say once again: Arab Christians are an integral part of my region's past, present, and future."
Kuwait's native Christian population exists, though is essentially small. There are between 259 and 400 Christian Kuwaiti citizens.[287] Christian Kuwaitis can be divided into two groups. The first group includes the earliest Kuwaiti Christians, who originated fromIraq andTurkey.[288] They have assimilated into Kuwaiti society, like their Muslim counterparts, and tend to speak Arabic with aKuwaiti dialect; theirfood andculture are also predominantly Kuwaiti. They makeup roughly a quarter of Kuwait's Christian population. The rest (roughly three-quarters) of Christian Kuwaitis make up the second group. They are more recent arrivals in the 1950s and 1960s, mostly Kuwaitis of Palestinian ancestry who were forced out ofPalestine after 1948.[288] There are also smaller numbers who originally hail fromSyria andLebanon.[288] This second group is not as assimilated as the first group, as theirfood,culture, andArabic dialect still retain aLevant feel. However, they are just as patriotic as the former group, and tend to be proud of their adopted homeland, with many serving in the army, police, civil, and foreign service. Most of Kuwait's citizen Christians belong to 12 large families, with the Shammas (from Turkey) and the Shuhaibar (from Palestine) families being some of the more prominent ones.[288]
Lebanon holds the largest number of Christians in the Arab world proportionally and falls just behind Egypt in absolute numbers. About 350,000-450,000 of Christians in Lebanon areOrthodox and Melkites, while the most dominant group areMaronites with about 1 million population, whose Arab identity is contentiously disputed.[289] Lebanese Christians are the only Christians in the Middle East with a sizable political role in the country. In accordance with theNational Pact, thePresident of Lebanon must be a Maronite Christian, theDeputy Speaker of the Parliament andDeputy Prime Minister a Greek Orthodox Christian and Melkites and Protestants have nine reserved seats in theParliament of Lebanon.[290] TheMaronites and theDruze founded modernLebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" inMount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.[291]
Christians constituted 60% of the population of Lebanon in 1932.[292] The exact number of Christians in modern Lebanon is uncertain because no official census has been made in Lebanon since 1932. Lebanese Christians belong mostly to theMaronite andGreek Orthodox Churches, with sizable minorities belonging to the Melkite Greek Catholic Church andArmenian Apostolic Church. The community ofArmenians in Lebanon is politically and demographically significant.
Christianity had a presence inTripolitania andCyrenaica inRoman times. TheCoptic population in Libya is estimated to number 60,000.[293] A 2015 estimates some 1,500 Christian believers from a Muslim background residing in the country.[294]
Christianity inMorocco appeared during theRoman times, when it was practiced by Christian Berbers in RomanMauretania Tingitana, although it disappeared after the Islamic conquests.[295] Morocco was home to half a million ChristianEuropeans (mostly of Spanish and French ancestry) prior toMoroccan independence.[296][297] TheU.S. State Department estimates the number of Arab and Berber Christians in Morocco as more than 40,000.[298] Pew-Templeton estimates the number of Moroccan Christians at 20,000.[299] The number of the Moroccans whoconverted to Christianity (most of them secret worshippers)[300] are estimated between 8,000 and 50,000.[301]
Most of thePalestinian Christians claim descent from the first Christian converts,Arameans,Ghassanid Arabs andGreeks who settled in the region. Between 36,000 and 50,000 Christians live in Palestine, most of whom belong to the Orthodox (Including Greek,Syriac and Armenian Orthodox), Catholic (Roman and Melchite) churches andEvangelical communities. The majority of Palestinian Christians live in theBethlehem andRamallah areas with a less number in other places.[302] In 2007, just before the Hamas takeover of Gaza, there were 3,200 Christians living in theGaza Strip.[303] Half the Christian community in Gaza fled to the West Bank and abroad after theHamas take-over in 2007.[304] However, Palestinian Christians in Gaza face restrictions on their freedom of movement by the Israeli blockade, which has been cited as one of the reasons contributing to their dwindling numbers.[305]
Many Palestinian Christians hold high-ranking positions in Palestinian society, particularly at the political and social levels. They manage the high ranking schools, universities, cultural centers and hospitals, however, Christian communities in the Palestinian Authority and the Gaza Strip have greatly dwindled over the last two decades. The causes of the Palestinian Christian exodus are widely debated and it started since the Ottoman times.[306]Reuters reports that many Palestinian Christians emigrate in pursuit of better living standards.[302] The Vatican saw the Israeli occupation and the general conflict in theHoly Land as the principal reasons for the Christian exodus from the territories.[307] The decline of the Christian community in Palestine follows the trend of Christian emigration from the Muslim-dominated Middle East. Some churches have attempted to ameliorate the rate of emigration of young Christians by building subsidized housing for them and expanding efforts at job training.[308]
Jubail Church is a 4th-century church building nearJubail.[309] Some parts of modernSaudi Arabia, such asNajran, were predominantly Christian until the 7th to 10th century, when most Christians were expelled,converted to Islam or left the region via the Sea route to Asia, with which merchant trade already existed, others migrated north to Jordan and Syria.[310] Some Arab Christians who remained living ascrypto-Christians. SomeArabian tribes, such asBanu Taghlib andBanu Tamim, followed Christianity.[311]
Today, Saudi Arabia's Arab Christian population consists mostly ofLebanese andSyrians living indiaspora.[citation needed]
There were approximately 1.1 million Catholics in Sudan, about 3.2 percent of the total population. Sudan forms one ecclesiastical province, consisting of one archdiocese (theArchdiocese of Khartoum) and one suffragan diocese (theDiocese of El Obeid). The vast majority of Sudan's Catholics ended up in South Sudan after the partition.[312]
The Arab Christians of Syria are predominantlyRūm-Orthodox andMelkite-Catholic, with someRoman-Catholics. Non-Arab Syrian Christians includeAssyrians (also known asChaldeans or Syriacs),Greeks andArmenians. Assyrian refugees fled to Syria after the massacres in Turkey and Iraq duringWorld War I, also known asSayfo inSyriac-Aramaic, and later after theevents in Iraq in 2003. Due to theSyrian civil war, a large number of Christiansfled the country to Lebanon, Jordan, and Europe. However, a significant portion of the population still resides in Syria, with some being internally displaced. ManyArab Christian militias fought in the Syrian civil war, including the Khabur Guards and the pro-Assad Guardians of the Dawn.[313]Western Aramaic is spoken by Christian and MuslimArameans (or Syriacs) alike in remote villages in theQalamoun mountains, includingMaaloula,Jubb'adin andBakh'a.[314][315][316][317][318][319][320][321][322][323][324]
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The largest Christian denomination in Syria is the Greek-Orthodox Church, primarily consisting of Arab Christians, followed by the Syriac-Orthodox Church, whose followers often identify asAssyrian orSyriac.[325] The combined population of Syria and Lebanon in 1910 was estimated at 30% in a population of 3.5 million. According to the 1960 census in Syria which recorded just over 4.5 million inhabitants, Christians formed just under 15% of the population (or 675,000).[326] Since 1960 the population of Syria has increased five-fold, but the Christian population only 3.5 times. Due to political reasons, no newer census has been taken since. Most recent estimates prior to theSyrian civil war suggested that overall Christians were about 10% of the overall population of Syrian 23 million citizens, due to having lower birth rates and higher emigration rates than their Muslim compatriots.[327]
Although religious freedom is allowed in the Syrian Arab Republic, all citizens of Syria including Christians, are subject to the Shari'a-based personal status laws regulating child custody, inheritance, and adoption.[325] For example, in the case of divorce, a woman loses the right to custody of her sons when they reach the age of thirteen and her daughters when they reach the age of fifteen, regardless of religion.[325] Since thefall of the Assad regime, the situation has deteriorated further, with Christians facing increased persecution by armed Islamist groups and constitutional changes affecting their rights.[328]
Christianity came in Tunisia during Roman rule. However, after the arrival ofIslam, the population of Christians decreased in the country.[329] Prior toTunisian independence, Tunisia was home to 255,000 ChristianEuropeans (mostly of Italian and Maltese ancestry).[330] The International Religious Freedom Report of 2007 reported that the Christian community numbered 50,000 people, 20,000 of whom were Catholics.[331] In theAnnuario Pontificio of 2018, the number of Catholics is estimated to have risen to 30,700.[332] However, the number of Tunisian Christians is estimated to be around 23,500.[333]
TheCatholic Church in Tunisia operates 12 churches, nine schools and several libraries throughout the country. In addition to holding religious services, the Catholic Church opened a monastery, freely organized cultural activities, and performed charitable work throughout Tunisia. According to church leaders, there are 2,000 practicingProtestant Christians,[331] most of them are Tunisians who converted to Christianity.[334] There is also a small community ofJehovah's Witnesses numbering around 50, only half of which identify as Arab.[331]
Today, there are between 120,000 and 320,000 people of variousChristian denominations in Turkey.[335]Antiochian Greek Christians (orMelkites) who mostly live inHatay Province, are one of the Arabic-speaking communities in Turkey and number approximately 18,000.[336] They are oftenRūm-Orthodox, but are sometimes known as "Arab Christians" due to theirculture and heritage.Antioch, the capital of Hatay Province, is also the historical center of both theGreek Orthodox Church andSyriac Orthodox Church. Turkey is also home to several non-Arab native minorities, such asArmenians (around 70,000),[337]Greeks (or Hellenes) (around 5,000) andAssyrians in the southeast (around 25,000).[338] The village of Tokaçlı inAltınözü District has an entirely Arab Christian population and is one of the few Christian villages in Turkey.[339]
Christianity was a widespread religion on the territory of contemporary Yemen as early as the sixth century, before the arrival ofIslam in Yemen.[340] Today it is a minority religion in Yemen with only a few thousand followers which has greatly been reduced amid theYemeni Civil War.[341]
He added that there are only about 300,000 left in Syria – mostly Greek Orthodox – "but we can play a fundamental role".
The Christian population in Syria has drastically dwindled since the start of the civil war, with The Syrian Observer estimating only around 300,000 Christians remain in the country.
Egypt has the Middle East's largest Orthodox population (an estimated 4 million Egyptians, or 5% of the population), mainly members of the Coptic Orthodox Church.
The Coptic Orthodox Church is the main Christian Church in Egypt, where it has between 6 and 11 million members.
Neither were there any Muslims among the Ninth-Century translators. Almost all of them were Christians of various Eastern denominations: Jacobites, Melchites, and, above all, Nestorians.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)The first signs of Arab dissent from the Ottoman caliphate came in the winter of 1877 - 1878 and coincided with the Ottoman Empire's decisive military defeat at the hands of Russia. Frightened by the prospect of a total Ottoman collapse, a group of Syrian notables headed by Ahmad al-Sulh of Beirut held secret meetings towards the end of 1877 to discuss the future of Syria and the possible threat of foreign annexation. The notables agreed that if the Russo-Ottoman war were to lead to the end of the Ottoman presence in Syria, they would work for the full independence of the vilayet and proclaim Amir 'Abdulqädir, a distinguished Algerian exile in Damascus, its ruler... From 1877 to 1878 Amir Abdulgadir was also in communication with Yüsuf Bek Karam, a Maronite notable from Lebanon, concerning a similar but not identical plan for the independence of the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire. According to Fritz Steppat, who has examined the Karam-'Abdulqädir correspondence, Karam proposed the separation of the Arab provinces from the Ottoman Empire and the appointment of Abdulgädir as their ruler. Steppat is convinced that "Abdulgädir accepted Karam's proposals in principle and that the conversation on the matter with him lasted a long time".
Aus den Dokumenten geht klar hervor, daß Karam sich bemühte, den Emir für eine Aktion zu gewinnen, die den Arabern - Karam spricht gewöhnlich von al-gins al-'arabi, der „arabischen Rasse", oder von al-gaba'il al-arabiya, den „arabischen Stämmen" - wenigstens die „Wahrung ihrer Rechte" im Osmanischen Reich verschaffen sollte, worunter er offenbar eine Art Autonomie verstand. Da aber die Türken sich als ungerecht erwiesen hätten und die islamische Saria vernachlässigten, stellt er als das erstrebenswertere Ziel eine Lösung der arabischen Länder vom Osmanischen Reich hin. Weil die Araber nur durch Einigkeit zu ihren Rechten kommen können, und weil die „islamischen Stämme" unter ihnen zahlenmäßig überwiegen, akzeptiert Karam ausdrücklich eine islamische Regierung
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)there had been a rich tradition of Arabic Christian literature aimed at defending Christianity against Muslim preaching and polemic
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)The Coptic Church experienced a religious revival beginning in the 1950s, and currently claims some seven million members inside of Egypt.
In recent years, the Melkites, like the Maronites, have denied affiliation with Arab ethnicity, race and culture.
nonetheless, similar cultural traditions and practices are shared by Christian and Muslim Arabs
Arab Christians may eat pork, but few of them do.
Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians
Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty.
It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.
السريان في معلولا وجبعدين ولا يزال الأهلون فيها يتكلمون
... معلولا السريان منذ القديم ، والذين ثبتت سريانيتهم بأدلة كثيرة هم وعين التينة وبخعا وجبعدين فحافظوا على لغتهم وكتبهم أكثر من غيرهم . وكان للقوم في تلك الأيام لهجتان ، لهجة عاميّة وهي الباقية الآن في معلولا وجوارها ( جبعدين وبخعا ) ...
Ich kenne das Dorf nicht, doch gehört habe ich davon. Was ist mit Malula?‹ fragte der festgehaltene Derwisch. >Das letzte Dorf der Aramäer< lachte einer der…
The fact that nearly all Arabic loans in Ma'lula originate from the period before the change from the rural dialect to the city dialect of Damascus shows that the contact between the Aramaeans and the Arabs was intimate…
Aramäer von Ǧubbˁadīn
Die arabischen Dialekte der Aramäer
Die Kontakte zwischen den drei Aramäer-dörfern sind nicht besonders stark.
Aramäern in Ma'lūla
Viele Aramäer arbeiten heute in Damaskus, Beirut oder in den Golfstaaten und verbringen nur die Sommermonate im Dorf.
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