TheApostolic Fathers, also known as theAnte-Nicene Fathers, were coreChristian theologians among theChurch Fathers who lived in the1st and2nd centuries AD who are believed to have personally known some of theTwelve Apostles or to have been significantly influenced by them.[1] Their writings, though widely circulated inearly Christianity, were not included in thecanon of theNew Testament. Many of the writings derive from the same time period and geographical location as other works of earlyChristian literature which came to be part of the New Testament.
The labelApostolic Fathers has been applied to these writers only since the17th century, to indicate that they were thought of as representing the generation that had personal contact with theTwelve Apostles.[1] The earliest known use of the term "Apostolic(al) Fathers" was by William Wake in 1693, when he was chaplainin ordinary to KingWilliam and QueenMary of England.[2] According to theCatholic Encyclopedia, the use of the termApostolic Fathers can be traced to the title of a 1672 work byJean-Baptiste Cotelier,SS. Patrum qui temporibus apostolicis floruerunt opera ("Works of the holy fathers who flourished in the apostolic times"), which was abbreviated toBibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum (Library of the Apostolic Fathers) by L. J. Ittig in his 1699 edition of the same.[1] The term "apostolic father" first occurs in the Hogedos ofAnastasius of the seventh-century, however states that it was never used to refer to a body of writings until later.[3]
The history of the title for these writers was explained byJoseph Lightfoot, in his 1890 translation of the Apostolic Fathers' works:[4]
...[T]he expression ['Apostolic Fathers'] itself does not occur, so far as I have observed, until comparatively recent times. Its origin, or at least its general currency, should probably be traced to the idea of gathering together the literary remains of those who flourished in the age immediately succeeding the Apostles, and who presumably therefore were their direct personal disciples. This idea first took shape in the edition ofCotelier during the last half of the seventeenth century (A.D. 1672). Indeed such a collection would have been an impossibility a few years earlier. The first half of that century saw in print for the first time the Epistles of Clement (A.D. 1633), and of Barnabas (A.D. 1645), to say nothing of the original Greek of Polycarp's Epistle (A.D. 1633) and the Ignatian Letters in their genuine form (A.D. 1644, 1646). The materials therefore would have been too scanty for such a project at any previous epoch. In his title page however Cotelier does not use the actual expression, though he approximates to it,SS. Patrum qui temporibus Apostolicis floruerunt opera; but the next editor [Thomas] Ittig (1699), adopts as his titlePatres Apostolici, and thenceforward it becomes common.
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The following writings are generally grouped together as having been written by the Apostolic Fathers (in italics are writings whose authors are unknown):[5]
Additionally some have argued that theOdes of Solomon was written by a student of theApostle John around the middle of the first century.[6]
All or most of these works were originally written in Greek. Older English translations of these works can be found online in theAnte-Nicene Fathers series on theChristian Classics Ethereal Library website.[7] Published English translations have also been made by various scholars of early Christianity, such as Joseph Lightfoot,Kirsopp Lake,Bart D. Ehrman andMichael W. Holmes.[note 2] The first English translation of the Apostolic Fathers' works was published in 1693, byWilliam Wake, then rector ofWestminster St James, laterArchbishop of Canterbury.[note 3] It was virtually the only English translation available until the mid-19th century. Since its publication many better manuscripts of the Apostolic Fathers' works have been discovered.[note 4]
There are several Greek text editions:
Clement of Rome (c. 35–99) wasbishop of Rome from 88 to 99.Irenaeus andTertullian list him as the fourth bishop afterPeter,Linus andAnacletus.[8] He was said to have been consecrated by Peter the Apostle, and he is known to have been a leading member of the Church in Rome in the late 1st century.[9][10]
TheFirst Epistle of Clement (c. AD 96)[11] was copied and widely read and is generally considered to be the oldestChristianepistle in existence outside of theNew Testament. The letter is extremely lengthy, twice as long as theEpistle to the Hebrews,[note 5] and it demonstrates the author's familiarity with many books of both theOld Testament and New Testament. The epistle repeatedly refers to the Old Testament as scripture[12] and includes numerous references to theBook of Judith, thereby establishing usage or at least familiarity with Judith in his time. Within the letter, Clement calls on theChristians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order.[11] Tradition identifies the author as Clement, bishop of Rome, and scholarly consensus is overwhelmingly in favor of the letter's authenticity.[13]
TheSecond Epistle of Clement was traditionally ascribed by some ancient authors to Clement, but it is now generally considered to have been written later,c. AD 140–160, and therefore could not be the work of Clement, who died in 99.[9] Doubts about the authorship of the letter had already been expressed in antiquity byEusebius andJerome.[14][15] Whereas 1 Clement was an epistle, 2 Clement appears to be a transcript of an oralhomily orsermon,[9] making it the oldest surviving Christian sermon outside of the New Testament.[citation needed]
Ignatius of Antioch (also known as Theophorus, from the Greek forGod-bearer) (c. 35–110)[16] wasbishop of Antioch.[17] He may have known the apostleJohn directly, and his thought is certainly influenced by the tradition associated with this apostle.[18] En route to his martyrdom inRome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved as an example of the theology of the earliest Christians. Important topics addressed in these letters includeecclesiology, thesacraments, the role ofbishops,[19] and the nature ofbiblical Sabbath.[20] He clearly identifies the local-church hierarchy composed of bishop,presbyters, anddeacons and claims to have spoken in some of the churches through theinspiration of theHoly Spirit. He is the second after Clement to mention thePauline epistles.[11]
Polycarp (c. AD 69 –c. 155) was bishop ofSmyrna (nowİzmir in Turkey).[21] His student Irenaeus wrote that he "was not only instructed by the apostles, and conversed with many who had seen the Lord, but was also appointed bishop by apostles in Asia and in the church in Smyrna",[22] and that he had, as a boy, listened to "the accounts which (Polycarp) gave of his intercourse with John and with the others who had seen the Lord".[23] The options for this John areJohn the son of Zebedee, traditionally viewed as the author of the Fourth Gospel, orJohn the Presbyter.[24] Traditional advocates follow Eusebius in insisting that the apostolic connection ofPapius was withJohn the Evangelist, and that this John, the author of theGospel of John, was the same as the apostle John.
Polycarp tried and failed to persuadeAnicetus, bishop of Rome, to have theWest celebrateEaster on14 Nisan, as in theEast.[25] He rejected the bishop's suggestion that the East use the Western date. In 155, the Smyrnans demanded Polycarp's execution as a Christian, and he died amartyr. His story has it that the flames built to kill him refused to burn him, and that when he was stabbed to death, so much blood issued from his body that it quenched the flames around him.[11] Polycarp is recognized as asaint in both theRoman Catholic andEastern Orthodox churches.
Papias of Hierapolis (c. 60 – c. 130) was bishop ofHierapolis (nowPamukkale in Turkey). Irenaeus describes him as "an ancient man who was a hearer ofJohn and a companion of Polycarp".[26] Eusebius adds that Papias was Bishop of Hierapolis around the time of Ignatius of Antioch.[27] The namePapias (Παπίας) was very common in the region, suggesting that he was probably a native of the area.[28]
Papias's major work was theExposition of the Sayings of the Lord (Greek: Λογίων Κυριακῶν Ἐξήγησις) in five books; it has been lost and only survives in excerpts from Irenaeus and Eusebius. Other fragments come from the works ofPhilip of Side andGeorge Hamartolos, but the authenticity of those are dubious.[29]
Quadratus of Athens (diedc. 129) was bishop ofAthens. Eusebius reports that he was a disciple of the apostles (auditor apostolorum) and that he was appointed as bishop after the martyrdom of his predecessorPublius.[30][31] Quadratus's major work is theApology, which was apparently read to EmperorHadrian to convince him to improve imperial policy toward Christians. It has been lost and only survives in an excerpt from Eusebius.[32]
TheDidache (Ancient Greek:Διδαχή,,romanized: Didakhé,lit. 'Teaching')[33] is a brief early Christiantreatise, dated anywhere from as early as AD 50 to the end of the 1st century.[34] It contains instructions for Christian communities. The text, parts of which may have constituted the first writtencatechism, has three main sections dealing with Christian lessons, rituals such asbaptism and theEucharist, and church organization. It was considered by some of theChurch Fathers as part of the New Testament[35] but rejected asspurious (non-canonical) by others.[36] Scholars knew of theDidache through references in other texts, but the text had been lost; it was rediscovered in 1873 by Philotheos Bryennios, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, in theCodex Hierosolymitanus.
The 2nd-centuryTheShepherd of Hermas was popular in the early church and was even consideredscriptural by some of the Church Fathers such as Irenaeus[37] and Tertullian. It was written in Rome inKoine Greek. TheShepherd had great authority in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The work comprises five visions, 12 mandates, and 10 parables. It relies onallegory and pays special attention to the Church, calling the faithful to repent of the sins that have harmed it.[38]
TheEpistle to Diognetus, sometimes called Mathetes or Epistle of Mathetes to Diogentus, is the first extant Christian apology. In the apology, the anonymous author explains to a pagan friend who wants to know more about the new religion. The epistle talks mainly about the incarnation ofLogos (Jesus Christ), the errors of paganism and Judaism, and explain about the Christian lifestyle.[39] This work is thought to have been written around 130 AD.[40]
The writings of the Apostolic Fathers reveal the development of distinct theological schools or orientations: Asia Minor and Syria, Rome, and Alexandria. The school of Asia Minor (represented by theJohannine literature, Ignatius, Polycarp, and Papias) stressed union with Christ for attainingeternal life.[41] For Ignatius, theeucharist unites the believer to thepassion of Christ. He wrote that it was "the medicine of immortality, the antidote which results not in dying but in living forever in Jesus Christ".[42] The writings of Papias taughthistoric premillennialism—the belief that theSecond Coming will inaugurate Jesus' thousand year reign on earth (themillennium).[43]
Roman Christianity (represented by Clement and Hermas) was influenced by Stoicism and stressed ethics and morality.[44] Hermas taught that a person could be forgiven once for postbaptismal sin (sins committed afterbaptism).[45] Hermas also introduced the idea ofworks of supererogation (to do more than the commandments of God require). This concept would contribute to the later development of thetreasury of merit and theWestern Church's penitential system.[46]
The Alexandrian school (represented by theEpistle of Barnabas) was influenced byMiddle Platonism andNeoplatonism. It combined a focus on ethics with an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament in the tradition ofPhilo.[47] The author of theEpistle of Barnabas used an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament to harmonize it with Christian teachings. The stories of the Old Testament were understood to betypes that point to the saving work of Jesus.[48]
The Apostolic Fathers, all of whom were Gentiles, struggled with the authority of theOld Covenant and the relationship between Judaism and Christianity. TheEpistle of Barnabas 14.3-4 claimed thetablets of the covenant were destroyed atSinai and that Israel had nocovenant with God.[49]
TheApostolic Fathers use Trinitarian language, such as that written by Clement: "Have we not one God and one Christ and one Spirit of grace, the Spirit that has been poured out on us?"[50] WhileChristology remained undeveloped, the Apostolic Fathers agreed on thepre-existence of Christ, as well as both his divinity and humanity.[51] Ignatius referred to Jesus as "our God" and wrote that "The one God manifested himself through Jesus Christ his Son who is his Word that proceeded from silence".[52] When opposingDocetism—a movement that denied the humanity of Jesus and therefore hisIncarnation—Ignatius wrote, "There is one Physician: both flesh and spirit,begotten and unbegotten, in man, God, in death, true life, both from Mary and from God, first passible and thenimpassible, Jesus Christ our Lord".[53] InThe Shephard of Hermas, the pre-incarnation Son of God is referred to as: "the holy pre-existent Spirit which created the whole creation God made to dwell in flesh that he desired. This flesh therefore in which the Holy Spirit dwelt was subject to the Spirit ... He chose this flesh as a partner with the Holy Spirit".[54] The usage of the term "Holy Spirit" inThe Shepherd of Hermas is often not specific to the third Person of the Trinity, and sometimes refers to a human spirit made holy by the grace of God.[55]
The Apostolic Fathers do not seem to share a single concept ofchurch polity or organization.[51] In theDidache,prophets are the preeminent leaders of the church withbishops anddeacons in subordinate roles. It is possible this arrangement represents "a period of transition between the primitive system ofcharismatic authority and the hierarchical organization that was slowly developing within the church".[56] Other writers stress the importance of bishops as leaders of the church. In an early articulation ofapostolic succession, Clement teaches that the apostles appointed bishops (orpresbyters) and deacons to lead the church.[57] Ignatius provided the earliest description of amonarchical bishop,[58] writing that "all are to respect the deacons as Jesus Christ and the bishop as a copy of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and the band of the apostles. For apart from these no group can be called a church".[59]
The Apostolic Fathers placed great importance on baptism. According to theologianGeoffrey Hugo Lampe, the Fathers considered baptism to be "the seal with which believers are marked out as God's people, the way of death to sin and demons and of rebirth to resurrection-life, the new white robe which must be preserved undefiled, the shield of Christ's soldier, the sacrament of the reception of the Holy Spirit."[60] The Apostolic Fathers also clearly considered the eucharist to be the center of Christian worship.[51] Ignatius identified the eucharist closely with the death and resurrection of Christ—"it is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins and which the Father raised up".[61]
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