| Apidima Cave | |
|---|---|
  Location of Apidima Cave in Greece Show map of Greece Apidima Cave (Peloponnese) Show map of Peloponnese | |
| Location | On westernMani Peninsula, west ofAreopoli, southern Greece |
| Coordinates | 36°39′41″N22°21′48″E / 36.66139°N 22.36333°E /36.66139; 22.36333[1] |
| Geology | Karstic cave inlimestone cliffside |
| Entrances | 5 |
| List of entrances | A, B, C, D, E |
| Access | Only by boat |
| Website | fhw |
Apidima Cave (Greek:Σπήλαιο Απήδημα,Spilaio Apidima) is a complex of five caves[2][3][4] located on the western shore ofMani Peninsula in southern Greece. A systematic investigation of the cave has yieldedNeanderthal and, according to some paleoanthropologists,Homo sapiens, fossils from thePalaeolithic era.[5][6]
One skull fragment fossil, given the name Apidima 1,[4] shows, according to the authors of a 2019paper, a mixture of modern human and primitive features[7] and has beendated to be more than 210,000 years old, older than a Neanderthal skull ("Apidima 2") found at the cave,[7] which per the authors may makes Apidima 1 the oldest proof ofHomo sapiens living outside Africa,[8][9] the currently confirmed oldest being themaxilla fromMisliya Cave in Mount Carmel, Israel, with a maximum age of about 190,000 years ago.[10]
The Apidima Cave complex consists of five[2][3]karstic caves (previously reported as four small caves[4]) formed in thelimestone cliffside on the west shore of theMani Peninsula in southern Greece.[11] Today the caves open on the face of a large sea cliff and are accessible only by boat,[12] but during theice ages the sea level went lower by more than 100 m (330 ft), and several seashore caves around the world, today submerged or situated at the wave zone—Apidima Cave belonging to the latter category—rose well above the water surface and were occupied by early people.[13]
The complex consists of four small caves, designated "A", "B", "C" and "D".[4] It was formed by erosion within theMiddle Triassic to LateEocene limestone of depth 500 m (1,600 ft), from 4–24 m (13–79 ft) above sea level, in a vertical zone of depth 20 m (66 ft).[14] The development of the caves is due to the vertical strikes of the limestone, while the horizontal opening is made by the sea.[14]
The scientific research programme at Apidima began in 1978 and is being conducted by theNational Archaeological Museum of Greece in collaboration with the Laboratory of Historical Geology-Palaeontology ofAthens University, the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploitation and theAristotle University of Thessaloniki.[6]
Approximately 20,000 bones, bone fragments, and teeth from various fauna have been collected since 1978 from this site by Theodore Pitsios and his team. There are a few animal specimens with probable traces of butchering.[14] The twoHomo fossils were excavated from the thick and cohesivebreccia 4 m (13 ft) above sea level.[14]
In addition to fossils, researchers located several tools, including handaxes and tools produced from local flint, along the perimeters ofpoljes at the Kokkinopilos and Alonaki locations.[15]
Researchers uncovered two significant fossils in Apidima Cave "A" in 1978. The two fossils are now referred to asApidima 1 andApidima 2.[7][2]Stone tools were found in all four caves.[12] Research published in July 2019 indicates that the Apidima 2 skull fragment (designated LAO 1/S2[4]) hasNeanderthalmorphology, and usinguranium-thorium dating,[7] was found to be more than 170,000 years old.[8][16][17] The Apidima 1 skull fossil (designated LAO 1/S1[4]) was found to be older, dated—using the same method—to more than 210,000 years old.
As of 1999, Theodore Pitsios, a Professor of Physical Anthropology and Faculty member of Medicine at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens,[18] estimated that over 30 thousand fossils had been collected from Apidima Cave with the bones of six or more individuals having been found. Of note within these collected fossils are the two crania imbedded in breccia rock in different layers of stratigraphy and were dated to have been deposited during all periods of the Pleistocene era.[19]
In addition to hominid fossils, tools made from both bone and stone were located along with the bones of animals indicative of hunting practices. In addition to these fossils and tools, evidence of fire use was also found.[19]
Apidima I consists of the posterior portion of the cranium which does show signs of erosion. This specimen is suspected of being of similar taxonomic designation as Apidima II though, as of 2019, no testing had been done[20] Apidima 1 has been found to have more modern features but still presents some older, more primitive features. In a 2019 article written by Katerina Harvati (et.al.) for Nature Journal, it was hypothesized that Apidima 1 may be an early example of Neanderthal prior to the changes in the overall cranial structures, but after the facial features had been developed.[7] Apidima 1 is estimated to date to more than 200 thousand years ago.[21]
The second crania, labeled Apidima 2 is more representative ofNeanderthal. A continuous and large brow ridge is present consistent with measurements with Neanderthal fossils found elsewhere. It is estimated that Apidima 2 to be dated more than 150 thousand years ago.[21] The fossilized cranium appeared to have multiple fractures, as well as malformation of the left side of the skull, suggestive of sediment pressure which occurred after having been deposited.[22] Apidima 2 has undergone analysis via CT scan in which the cranium was virtually reconstructed. Scientists used the digital nature of this analysis to reconstruct the specimen without fractures and breaks in order to visualize a clearer view of one of the earliest European hominid samples to date.[22]
In a 2019 study a research team proposed a hypothesis these Hominids present a mixture of modern human and primitive features.[7] This makes Apidima 1 the oldest evidence ofHomo sapiens outside Africa,[8][7][23][24] more than 150,000 years older than previousH. sapiens finds in Europe.[7][16][23][25] The lead researcher,Katerina Harvati, summarized, "Our results suggest that at least two groups of people lived in the MiddlePleistocene in what is now southern Greece: an earlyHomo sapiens population, followed by a Neanderthal population."[26] Harvati said that the team would attempt to extractancient DNA from the fossils, but that she was not optimistic about finding any.[24] If sufficient specimens can be obtained, apalaeoproteomic analysis ofancient proteins may also be done on the fossils.[5]
In a 2020 publication another research group concluded that the anatomical features of both skulls show they can be attributed to the group of evolved EuropeanHomo erectus hominins, with some early Neanderthal features, similar to the skulls ofSima de los Huesos,Swanscombe,Biache-Saint-Vaast andLazaret, but they can be differentiated from the classical Neanderthals.[27]
Fossils of large animals have been found at the Kalamakia site, north of Apidima. These findings consisted of Rhino, elephant, deer, goat, and sheep species. The deer and caprid species fossils are considered to have been food items.[14] At Apidimia, Caves B and C held fossils ofleopard (Panthera pardus) andEuropean Badger(Meles meles), whereas Caves C and D contained fossils from multiplelynx (Lynx lynx). Cave C also provided fossil remains of theEuropean Wildcat species (Felis silvestris) andred fox (Vulpes vulpes), as well as remains of thebeech marten (Martes foina).[14]
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)| Taxonomy (Hominins) |
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