Most Apiaceae areannual,biennial orperennialherbs (frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are woodyshrubs or small trees such asBupleurum fruticosum.[3]: 35 Their leaves are of variable size, andalternately arranged, or with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite. The leaves may bepetiolate orsessile. There are nostipules but the petioles are frequently sheathing, and the leaves may beperfoliate. The leaf blade is usually dissected,ternate, orpinnatifid, but simple, and entire in some genera, e.g.Bupleurum.[4] Commonly, their leaves emit a marked smell when crushed, aromatic to fetid, but absent in some species.
The defining characteristic of this family is theinflorescence, the flowers nearly always aggregated in terminalumbels, that may be simple or more commonly compound, often umbelliformcymes. The flowers are usually perfect (hermaphroditic), andactinomorphic, but there may bezygomorphic flowers at the edge of the umbel, as incarrot (Daucus carota) andcoriander, with petals of unequal size, the ones pointing outward from the umbel larger than the ones pointing inward. Some areandromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or even dioecious (as inAcronema), with a distinctcalyx, andcorolla, but the calyx is often highly reduced, to the point of being undetectable in many species, while the corolla can be white, yellow, pink or purple. The flowers are nearly perfectlypentamerous, with fivepetals and fivestamens.[5]There is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence. Some flowers are functionally staminate (where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized) while others are functionally pistillate (where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen). Pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant (geitonogamy) is common. Thegynoecium consists of two carpels fused into a single, bicarpellate pistil with aninferior ovary.[5]Stylopodia support two styles, and secrete nectar, attracting pollinators like flies, mosquitoes, gnats, beetles, moths, and bees. The fruit is aschizocarp consisting of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two mericarps, each containing a single seed. The fruits of many species are dispersed by wind but others such as those ofDaucus spp., are covered in bristles, which may be hooked in sanicleSanicula europaea[3] and thus catch in the fur of animals. The seeds have an oilyendosperm[6][7] and often contain essential oils, containing aromatic compounds that are responsible for the flavour of commercially important umbelliferous seed such asanise,cumin andcoriander. The shape and details of the ornamentation of the ripe fruits are important for identification to species level.[4]: 802
Apiaceae was first described byJohn Lindley in 1836.[8] The name is derived from the type genusApium, which was originally used byPliny the Elder circa 50 AD for acelery-like plant.[9] The alternative name for the family, Umbelliferae, derives from theinflorescence being generally in the form of a compoundumbel. The family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in Jacques Daleschamps' 1586Historia generalis plantarum. WithRobert Morison's 1672Plantarum umbelliferarum distribution nova it became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published.
The family is solidly placed within theApiales order in theAPG III system. It is closely related toAraliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear. Traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruitmorphology, and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecularphylogenetic analyses. The subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux, with many of the groups being found to be grosslyparaphyletic orpolyphyletic.[1]
Prior tomolecular phylogenetic studies, the family was subdivided primarily based on fruit characteristics. Molecular phylogenetic analyses from the mid-1990s onwards have shown that fruit characters evolved in parallel many times, so that using them in classification resulted in units that were notmonophyletic.[10] In 2004, it was proposed that Apiaceae should be divided into four subfamilies:[11]
Apioideae is by far the largest subfamily with about 90% of the genera. Most subsequent studies have supported this division, although leaving some genera unplaced. A 2021 study suggested the relationships shown in the following cladogram.[10]
ThePlatysace clade and the generaKlotzschia andHermas fell outside the four subfamilies. It was suggested that they could be accommodated in subfamilies of their own.Phlyctidocarpa was formerly placed in the subfamily Apioideae, but if kept there makes Apioideaeparaphyletic. It could be placed in an enlarged Saniculoideae, or restored to Apioideae if the latter were expanded to include Saniculoideae.[10]
The subfamilies can be further divided into tribes and clades, with many clades falling outside formally recognized tribes.[10]
The number of genera accepted by sources varies. As of December 2022[update],Plants of the World Online (PoWO) accepted 444 genera, while GRIN Taxonomy accepted 462. The PoWO genera are not a subset of those in GRIN; for example,Haloselinum is accepted by PoWO but not by GRIN, whileHalosciastrum is accepted by GRIN but not by PoWO, which treats it as a synonym ofAngelica. TheAngiosperm Phylogeny Website had an "approximate list" of 446 genera.[1]
Generally, all members of this family are best cultivated in the cool-season garden; they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm. Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as acompanion plant. One reason is that the tiny flowers, clustered into umbels, are well suited forladybugs,parasitic wasps, and predatoryflies, which drink nectar when not reproducing.[15] They then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants. Some of the members of this family considered "herbs" produce scents that are believed to mask the odours of nearby plants, thus making them harder for insect pests to find.
The poisonous members of the Apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally. The poisonousOenanthe crocata has been used as an aid in suicides, andarrow poisons have been made from various other family species.
Many species in the family Apiaceae produce phototoxic substances (calledfuranocoumarins) that sensitize human skin to sunlight. Contact with plant parts that contain furanocoumarins, followed by exposure to sunlight, may causephytophotodermatitis,[17][18] a serious skin inflammation. Phototoxic species includeAmmi majus,Notobubon galbanum, theparsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and numerous species of the genusHeracleum, especially the giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum). Of all the plant species that have been reported to induce phytophotodermatitis, approximately half belong to the family Apiaceae.[19]
^abHeywood, V.H.; Brummitt, R.K.; Culham, A.; Seberg, O. (2007).Flowering plant families of the world. New York, U.S: Firefly books.ISBN978-1-55407-206-4.
^abStace, C. A. (2010).New Flora of the British Isles (Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 88.ISBN978-0-521-70772-5.
^abTaylor, Ronald J. (1994) [1992].Sagebrush Country: A Wildflower Sanctuary (rev. ed.). Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Pub. Co. p. 94.ISBN0-87842-280-3.OCLC25708726.
^abcdClarkson, James J.; Zuntini, Alexandre R.; Maurin, Olivier; Downie, Stephen R.; Plunkett, Gregory M.; Nicolas, Antoine N.; Smith, James F.; Feist, Mary Ann E.; Gutierrez, Karime; Malakasi, Panagiota; Bailey, Paul; Brewer, Grace E.; Epitawalage, Niroshini; Zmarzty, Sue; Forest, Félix & Baker, William J. (2021). "A higher-level nuclear phylogenomic study of the carrot family (Apiaceae)".American Journal of Botany.108 (7):1252–1269.doi:10.1002/ajb2.1701.PMID34287829.S2CID236159639.
^Plunkett, G.M.; Chandler, G.T.; Lowry, P.P.; Pinney, S.M.; Sprenkle, T.S.; van Wyk, B.-E. & Tilney, P. M. (2004). "Recent advances in understanding Apiales and a revised classification".South African Journal of Botany.70 (3):371–381.doi:10.1016/S0254-6299(15)30220-9.
^Woodville, W. (1793) Medical Botany. James Phillips, London.
^C. Zidorn; K. Jöhrer; M. Ganzera; B. Schubert; E.M. Sigmund; J. Mader; R. Greil; E.P. Ellmerer; H. Stuppner (2005). "Polyacetylenes from the Apiaceae vegetables carrot, celery, fennel, parsley, and parsnip and their cytotoxic activities".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.53 (7):2518–2523.doi:10.1021/jf048041s.PMID15796588.
Constance, L. (1971). "History of the classification of Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)." in Heywood, V. H. [ed.], The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 1–11. Academic Press, London.
Cronquist, A. (1968). The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
French, D. H. (1971). "Ethnobotany of the Umbelliferae." in Heywood, V. H. [ed.], The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 385–412. Academic Press, London.
Hegnauer, R. (1971) "Chemical Patterns and Relationships of Umbelliferae." in Heywood, V. H. [ed.], The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 267–277. Academic Press, London.
Heywood, V. H. (1971). "Systematic survey of Old World Umbelliferae." in Heywood, V. H. [ed.], The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 31–41. Academic Press, London.
Judd, W. S. et al. (1999). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Plunkett, G. M.;Soltis, D. E.;Soltis, P. S. (1996). "Higher Level Relationships of Apiales (Apiaceae and Araliaceae) Based on Phylogenetic Analysis of rbcL Sequences".American Journal of Botany.83 (4):499–515.doi:10.2307/2446219.JSTOR2446219.
Nieto Feliner, Gonzalo; Jury, Stephen Leonard & Herrero Nieto, Alberto (eds.)Flora iberica. Plantas vasculares de la Península Ibérica e Islas Baleares.Vol. X. "Araliaceae-Umbelliferae"Archived 30 October 2014 at theWayback Machine (2003) Madrid: Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC (in Spanish).
![Anise (Pimpinella anisum) from Woodville (1793)[12]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aApiaceae_Pimpinella_anisum.jpg)
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