Antisemitism in theRussian Empire includednumerous pogroms and the designation of thePale of Settlement from which Jews were forbidden to migrate into the interior of Russia, unless they converted to theRussian Orthodoxstate religion.
Russia remained unaffected by the liberalising tendencies of this era with respect to the status of Jews. Before the 18th century, Russia maintained an exclusionary policy towards Jews, in accordance with the anti-Jewish precepts of the Russian Orthodox Church.[1] When asked about admitting Jews into the Empire,Peter the Great stated "I prefer to see in our midst nations professingMohammedanism andpaganism rather than Jews. They are rogues and cheats. It is my endeavor to eradicate evil, not to multiply it."[2]
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More active discriminatory policies began with thepartition of Poland in the 18th century byAustria,Prussia (Germany) andRussia, which resulted, for the first time in Russian history, in the possession of land with a large population of Jews in theRussian Partition.[3] This land was designated as thePale of Settlement from which Jews were forbidden to migrate into the interior of Russia.[3] In 1772,Catherine II forced the Jews of the Pale of Settlement to stay in theirshtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland.[4] The Pale of Settlement was officialized in 1791 with the purpose of ridding Moscow ofJews.[5] Its borders were finalized in 1812 with the annexation ofBessarabia.[5]
Tsar Nicholas I aimed to destroy Jewish life, and his reign is remembered as one of the most painful episodes forEuropean Jewry.[6] In 1827, Tsar Nicholas ordered theconscription of all Jewish males into theImperial Russian Army beginning at age 12.[6][7][8][9][10] InJewish diasporal communities hailing from the Russian Empire, the 19th century is often recalled as a time where Jews were forced to the front lines of the army and used as "cannon fodder".[11] Jews were forbidden from becoming officers.[6] Many of the boys forced into the military were captured by "snatchers" (khapers).[6] Jewish agricultural communities in moreSouthern areas were often exempt as the Russian government liked to encourage agriculturalism among Jews, while other communities that were exempted were often expelled from their towns and villages.[6]
TheCrimean War led to an increased kidnapping of Jewish male children and young men to fight on the front.[6]
In 1912, a law was passed forbidding even those who were the grandchildren of Jews from being officers, despite the large numbers of Jews andthose of Jewish descent in the military.[12]
In the 1840s, the Russian imperial government imposed a special tax on the Jews, and used the money to build a network of "Jewish schools", with the goal ofassimilating them intoRussian culture. It was decreed that teachers in these schools had to be Christian, and that "the purpose of the education of the Jews is to bring them nearer to the Christians and to uproot their harmful beliefs which are influenced by the Talmud."[6]
In 1844, Polish-style communities were forcibly disbanded, and replaced with new settlement structures. Growingpayot was officially forbidden, and Tsar Nicholas officially classified all Jews into two categories, "useful" and "non-useful", with merchants being considered "useful" and others being considered "non-useful".[6]
The reign ofTsar Alexander II saw the removal of some antisemitic legal persecution, but the intensification of measures aimed to dissolveJewish culture into the national Russian culture. Under Alexander's rule Jews who graduated from secondary school were permitted to live outside the Pale of Settlement. As a result of these measures, many Jews achieved commercial success; however, the increased presence of Jews was opposed by various sectors of Russian society.[12]
A series ofgenocidal persecutions, orpogroms, against Jews took place in Russia. These arose from a variety of motivations, not all of them related toChristian antisemitism, which derived from thenotion that Jews were responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus.[13][14] The primary pretext for the pogroms, however, was theassassination of Tsar Alexander II.[15]
The first pogrom is often considered to be the1821 anti-Jewish riots inOdesa (modernUkraine) after the death of theGreek Orthodox PatriarchGregory V of Constantinople, in which 14 Jews were killed.[16] The virtual Jewish encyclopedia claims that initiators of 1821 pogroms were the local Greeks that used to have a substantial diaspora in the port cities of what was known asNovorossiya.[17]
Long-standing repressive policies and attitudes towards the Jews were intensified after theassassination ofTsar Alexander II on 13 March 1881. This event was blamed on the Jews and sparked widespread anti-Jewish pogroms, which lasted for three years, from 27 April 1881 to 1884.[18]
TheWarsaw pogrom of 1881, which worsened Polish-Jewish relations, was criticized by some members of the Polish elite.[19] Historian Michael Ochs notes that the period from 1863 to 1881 saw an increase in antisemitism in theRussian-ruled Poland.[19]
Tsar Alexander III (1881–1894) was hostile to Jews; his reign brought a sharp deterioration in the Jews' economic, social, and political condition. His policy was eagerly implemented by tsarist officials in the "May Laws" of 1882.[20] They officially blamed Jews for the Tsar's death. They banned Jews from inhabiting rural areas andshtetls (even within thePale of Settlement) and restricted the occupations in which they could engage.[21][22] The Russian imperial police strictly applied the antisemitic laws, while theRussian media engaged in antisemitic propaganda.[12] In 1891, all Jews were systematically expelled from Moscow.[12] These repressions convinced many Jews that Russia could no longer be their home.
The Tsar's ministerKonstantin Pobedonostsev stated the aim of the government with regard to the Jews was that "One third will die out, one third will leave the country and one third will be completely dissolved in the surrounding population".[23] The pogroms and the repressive legislation resulted in the mass emigration of Jews towestern Europe and theAmericas. Between 1881 and the outbreak of the First World War, an estimated 2.5 million Jews left Russia—one of the largest group migrations in recorded history.[24]
After the Pesach pogrom of 1903, pogroms became the official policy of the Russian Empire, and the antisemitic terror reached its peak in October 1905.[12]
Jan Gotlib Bloch (1836–1901) a wealthy railroad magnate and researcher on warfare and society converted toCalvinism, the religion of a small minority in the Russian Empire. In this way he was able to avoid the legaldisabilities imposed on Jews under Tsarist rule, especially the geographical limitation to thePale of Settlement, banning Jews from living in the Empire's main cities—without needing to regularly attend a church and be visibly practising Christianity. As became evident especially in the later part of his life, he retained a strong concern for the situation of the Jews, even if formally no longer one of them. Following the wave of pogroms of the 1880s and the early 1890s, a commission headed by the vociferously antisemitic Interior MinisterVyacheslav von Plehve recommended a further worsening of the Jews' legal position. In response, Bloch sent to the government a series of well-reasoned memoranda calling for an end to the discrimination of the Jews. Bloch embarked upon an extensive research on the social and economic conditions of the Russian Empire's Jewish subjects. For that purpose, he established a team of scientific researchers headed by the Russian economistA. P. Subbotin [ru], on whose work he spent hundreds of thousands of rubles. The result, completed only in 1901—one year before Bloch's death—was a five-volume work entitled "Comparison of the material and moral levels in the Western Great-Russian and Polish Regions". On the basis of extensive statistical data, compiled mainly in the Pale of Settlement, he gave a comprehensive account of the Jewish role in the Empire's economic life, in crafts, trade and industry. The study showed that the Jews were a boon to the Russian economy—rather than damaging and threatening it, as was at the time regularly claimed by antisemites. Bloch's great effort was, however, in vain. TheRussian Council of Ministers banned the work, and nearly all copies were confiscated and burned. Only a few surviving copies remained in circulation, as great rarities. Subotin was, however, later able to publish a summary entitled "The Jewish Question in the Right Light".[25]
In the late 1890s a Russian intelligence agent in Paris forgedThe Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Published in 1903, it was widely translated and became a powerful propaganda weapon for antisemitic elements worldwide.Henry Ford sponsored its circulation in the United States. It claimed a secret Jewish cabal was taking over the world.[26]
In the second half of the 19th century, in response to the widespread and systematic persecution of Jews, many Jews fled the Russian Empire, but with the spread of literacy, many of those who stayed were drawn into radical and reformist ideologies, attracted by the prospect of liberation of Jewish communities from the conditions imposed on them, as well as disgust at the political system of the Russian Empire. TheRussian Social Democratic Labour Party included many Jews such asJulius Martov andLeon Trotsky in its leadership, as did theSocial Revolutionary Party of Russia.[12] The same period saw theBundist andZionist movements emerge and rapidly grow, with their promises to end the persecution of Jews, but their growth led to a polarization of Jewish communities due to their diverging political goals. While the Bundists proclaimed the superiority of theYiddish language, the Zionists promotedHebrew as alingua franca for Jews of varying geographic origins.[12] The Zionist movement in Russia was officially started with theHibbat Zion movement in 1881–1883, in response to the growing pogroms against Jews.[12] While the Bundists saw the home for Russian Jewry in Russia, the Zionists aimed to establish aJewish state free of rule by foreigners.[12] Although the Zionist movement was first organized in Western Europe, the majority of its adherents came from Eastern Europe, the Russian Empire in particular.[12] Russian Jews were the founders ofLabor Zionism.[12] Despite, or perhaps because of, its popularity, all Zionist organizations were outlawed in Russia.[12] The Bundists, on the other hand, proclaimed Yiddish as a national language for Jews and argued for a separate set of Jewish-run schools.[12]
Zionism stressed self-respect and self-defense for Jewish communities, and by the 1900s, despite ideological differences, Bundists, Labor Zionists and other Zionists banded together to form self-defense organizations against Russian pogroms.[12]
Repeated large-scale murderous pogroms in the late 19th and early 20th century increasingly angered American opinion.[27] The well-establishedGerman Jews in the United States, although they were not directly affected by the Russian pogroms, were well organized and convinced Washington to support the cause of Jews in Russia.[28][29] Led byOscar Straus,Jacob Schiff,Mayer Sulzberger, and RabbiStephen Samuel Wise, they organized protest meetings, issued publicity, and met withPresident Theodore Roosevelt and Secretary of StateJohn Hay. Stuart E. Knee reports that in April, 1903, Roosevelt received 363 addresses, 107 letters and 24 petitions signed by thousands of Christians leading public and church leaders—they all called on the Tsar to stop the persecution of Jews. Public rallies were held in scores of cities, topped off atCarnegie Hall inNew York City in May. The Tsar retreated a bit and fired one local official after theKishinev pogrom, which Roosevelt explicitly denounced. But Roosevelt was mediating theRusso-Japanese War and could not publicly take sides. Therefore Secretary Hay took the initiative in Washington. Finally Roosevelt forwarded a petition to the Tsar, who rejected it claiming the Jews were at fault. Roosevelt wonAmerican Jewish support in his1904 landslide reelection. The pogroms continued, as hundreds of thousands of Jews fled Russia, most heading forLondon orNew York. With American public opinion turning against Russia, theUnited States Congress officially denounced its policies in 1906. Roosevelt kept a low profile as did his new Secretary of StateElihu Root. However in late 1906 Roosevelt did appoint the first Jew to theU.S. Cabinet,Oscar Straus becomingSecretary of Commerce and Labor.[30][31]
Menahem Mendel Beilis was a Russian Jew accused ofritual murder inKiev in the Russian Empire in a notorious 1913 trial, known as the "Beilis trial" or "Beilis affair". The process sparked international criticism of the antisemitic policies of the Russian Empire. The Beilis trial took place in Kiev from September 25 through October 28, 1913. The Beilis case was compared with theLeo Frank case in which an American Jew was convicted of killing a 13-year-old girl inAtlanta. After his acquittal, Beilis became an enormous hero and celebrity.
In World War I, many Jews felt they could improve their position in society if they contributed to defending Russia. Over 400,000 were mobilized and 80,000 served on the front lines.[12] Despite this, when theImperial Russian Army faced defeat, antisemitic commanders blamed Jewish populations. Althoughpillaging by Russian soldiers became an issue in general during theGreat Retreat, Jews were frequently targeted.[32] Jews were accused of treason and spying for the Germans, with some Jews being kidnapped and tried for espionage.[12] After their trials, mass expulsions of Jews living near the front lines were organized, with Jews being expelled fromCourland and northernLithuania in 1915.[12] One month later, the printing ofHebrew characters was forbidden.[12]
When theRussian Provisional Government was put into place on 16 March 1917, all antisemitic measures were abolished, and Jews served in important government positions.[12] As a result, theFebruary Revolution saw enthusiastic support from Jews, and Jews served important roles for various political parties.[12] Zionist youth groups were formed across the country, Zionists held celebratory rallies in response to theBalfour Declaration, and Zionists formed Jewish self-defense battalions.[12] However, only a few months after its foundation, the provisional government was overthrown by theBolsheviks in theOctober Revolution, and in the ensuing anarchy, violent antisemitism returned to Russia, with sporadic pogroms.Anton Denikin'sWhite Army was a bastion of antisemitism, using "Strike at the Jews and save Russia!" as its motto.[12] The BolshevikRed Army, although committing antisemitic abuses, had a policy of opposing antisemitism, and as a result, it won more support of much of the Jewish population, although Soviet policies of anti-religious propaganda and nationalization of private property proved unpopular and foreshadowed futureantisemitism in the Soviet Union.[12]
The anti-Jewish policies by the Russian state were supported by the Ecclesiastical Collegium underPeter the Great and, later bythe Holy Synod. These institutions of the Church served essentially as government departments.[33] Russian Orthodox population generally "maintained a more or less neutral attitude" towards Jews during periods of calm, with a "mixture of fear and hatred of Jews characteristic of medieval Christian consciousness" smouldering below the surface. However, social, economic, religious or political changes occasionally brought this undercurrent of antisemitism to the surface, changing the Christian populace into "a fanatical crowd capable of murder and pillage."[33] All "anti-Jewish decisions were conducted by state administrative organs, acting on the authority of emperors, state committees and ministries.",[33] but "unlike the Western church, the Russian Orthodox Church took no steps to protect the Jews."[33] Moreover, despite the lack of anofficial church position on the Jewish question, priests and even bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church were vulnerable to believing the antisemitic propaganda spread by the Tsarist civil service and byextreme nationalistparamilitary organizations like theBlack Hundreds and theUnion of the Russian People. For this reason, the rioters in the firstKishinev pogrom of 1903 were led byEastern Orthodox priests.[34]
A 1791 decree confirmed the right of Russian Jews to live in the territory annexed from Poland and permitted Jews to settle there. Subsequent conquests and annexations helped ferment the area known of as "The Pale of Settlement," created in 1791 to rid Moscow of Jews. Its borders were finalized in 1812 with the annexation of Bessarabia.
Czar Nicholas I (reign: 1825-1855) sought to destroy all Jewish life in Russia and his reign constitutes a painful part of European Jewish history. In 1827, he ordered the conscription of Jewish youth into the Russian military beginning at age 12. Many of the youngsters were kidnapped by "snatchers" ("khapers") in order to get them to spend their formative years in the Russian military. This had a significant effect in lowering the morale of the Russian Jewish community. The Jews that were not forced to spend decades in the military were often expelled from their towns and villages. Some Jews escaped this persecution, however, as the government encouraged agricultural settlement among Jews. These Jews were exempt from forced conscription. Many Jewish agricultural settlements were established in southern Russia and the rest of the Pale of Settlement. In the 1840s, a network of special schools was created for the Jews, although since 1804 the Jews had permission to study in regular schools. These Jewish schools were paid for by a special tax imposed on the Jews. In 1844, a decree was established that the teachers would be both Christians and Jews. The Jewish community viewed the government's attempt to set up these schools as a way of secularizing and assimilating the younger generation. Their fears were not unfounded, as the decree to require Christian teachers was accompanied by the declaration that "the purpose of the education of the Jews is to bring them nearer to the Christians and to uproot their harmful beliefs which are influenced by the Talmud." In 1844, the Polish-style communities were disbanded but they were replaced by a new communal organizational structure. A law was instituted prohibiting Jews from growing pe'ot ("sidelocks") and wearing traditional clothes. Nicholas I than divided Jews into two groups – "useful" and "not useful." The wealthy merchants and those essential for commerce were deemed "useful," all others "non-useful." The order was met with opposition from the Jewish communities of Western Europe and worldwide, but was instituted in 1851. The Crimean War delayed implementation of the order, but the war only led to increased kidnappings of children and young adults into military service; often never to be seen again.
pogroms Easter.
