Anti-Slavic sentiment, also called anti-Slavic racism orSlavophobia, refers to different types of negative attitudes,prejudices,collective hatred or animosity,stereotypes, discrimination, andviolence (economic,physical,political,psychological,verbal, etc.) directed at one or more ethnic groups ofSlavic peoples. Accompanyingracism andxenophobia, the most common manifestation of anti-Slavic sentiment throughout history has been the assertion that some Slavs areinferior to other peoples.
Anti-Slavic sentiment sentiment reached its highest point duringWorld War II, whenNazi Germany andits collaborators classified most of the Slavs, especially theBelarusians,Croats,Czechs,Poles,Russians,Serbs,Slovenes, andUkrainians, as "subhumans" (Untermenschen) and perpetrated a systematic genocide against them, murdering millions of Slavs through theGeneralplan Ost andHunger Plan.[1][2][3]
Slavophobia also emerged twice in theUnited States. The first time was during theProgressive Era, when immigrants fromEastern Europe were met with opposition from the dominant class ofWestern European–origin American citizens; and again during theCold War, when the United States became locked in an intensive global rivalry with theSoviet Union.[4]
Slavophobia inAlbania increasingly developed at the beginning of the 20th century, mostly through the work of theFranciscan friars[citation needed] who had studied in monasteries inAustria-Hungary,[5] after the recentmassacres andexpulsions of Albanians by their Slavic neighbours.[unreliable source?][6] The Albanian intelligentsia proudly asserted, "We Albanians are the original and autochthonous race of the Balkans. The Slavs are conquerors and immigrants who came but yesterday from Asia."[unreliable source?][7] InSoviet historiography, anti-Slavism in Albania was inspired by the Catholic clergy,[citation needed] which opposed the Slavic people because of the role theCatholic clergy[citation needed] and Slavs opposed "rapacious plans of Austro-Hungarian imperialism in Albania."[8]
In the 1920s,Italian fascists propagated animosity towards people from the neighboring Yugoslavia, especially theCroats,Serbs, andSlovenes. Among others, they fabricated many chauvinistic tropes, for example, claims that the Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes had "atavistic impulses," alongside perpetuating the made-up accusations that the Yugoslavs were conspiring on behalf of "Grand Orient Masonry and its funds." Additionally, some of these prejudices, stereotypes, and racial tropes were connected withanti-semitic conspiracy theories, such the belief that the Serbs were involved in a "social-democratic, masonic Jewish internationalist plot."[9]
The leader of fascist Italy,Benito Mussolini, considered the Slavic race inferior and barbaric.[10][11] Furthermore, he believed that theCroats posed an existential threat to Italy as they supposedly intended to seizeDalmatia, a region which was claimed by Italy, while he also claimed that the threat rallied Italians at the end ofWorld War I: "The danger of seeing the Yugoslavians settle along the whole Adriatic shore had caused a bringing together in Rome of the cream of our unhappy regions. Students, professors, workmen, citizens—representative men—were entreating the ministers and the professional politicians."[12] These claims often tended to emphasize the "foreignness" of the Yugoslavs by stating that they were newcomers to the area, unlike the ancient Italians, whose territories were occupied by the Slavs.
CountGaleazzo Ciano, Mussolini's son-in-law, and the Foreign Minister ofFascist Italy, whom Mussolini ordered to be executed in 1944, wrote the following entry in his diary:[13]
Vidussoni comes to see me. After having spoken about a few casual things, he makes some political allusions and announces savage plans against the Slovenes. He wants to kill them all. I take the liberty of observing that there are a million of them. "That does not matter." he answers firmly.
In Canada, many xenophobicwhite supremacists were deeply tied to their nation's "Anglo-Saxon" culture, especially from the early 1900s to the end of World War II. TheKu Klux Klan in Canada was prominent in the provinces ofSaskatchewan andAlberta, both of which have had a relatively high share ofEastern European ethnic population. Consequently, many immigrants fromUkraine, Russia, andPoland were frequently faced with public defamation, acts of harassment, and physical assaults.[14]
Furthermore, during World War I, thousands ofUkrainian Canadians were perceived as "enemy aliens" as Canadiannativists considered their presence as a "threat" to Canada'sWestern European heritage. Due to this, many of them wereinterned in concentration camps. What is more, there was constant discrimination towardsUkrainians who recently immigrated from theAustro-Hungarian Empire.[15]
Though anti-Slavic sentiments reached their peak during Nazi Germany, Germany has had a long history of Slavophobia. In particular, the Germanic people of Prussia often depicted Polish people in a negative light, which paralleled future Slavophobia in the Nazi regime.[16]The Teutonic Order played a foundational role in shaping early German anti-Slavic sentiment through its participation in theDrang nach Osten ("Drive to the East"), a medieval and later nationalistic concept referring to German expansion into Slavic and Baltic lands. Beginning in the 13th century, the order launched crusades against pagan and Slavic populations in the eastern Baltic region, including Prussians, Lithuanians, andPomeranians, under the pretext of Christianization and a civilizing mission.[17][18] The conquest and colonization of these territories involved the suppression of native Slavic and Baltic cultures, forced conversions, and the settlement of German colonists. These actions were justified by portraying Slavic peoples as barbaric, morally deficient, and politically inferior, a narrative reinforced by Teutonic chroniclers such asPeter of Dusburg. The order imposed German legal systems and language, contributing to a lasting cultural hierarchy in which German identity was seen as superior.[19]
Nikolay Ulyanov [ru] in his 1968 article "Замолчанный Маркс" (Hushed-up Marx) provides ample evidence of anti-Slavism by the founders ofMarxism,Karl Marx andFriedrich Engels.[20] For example, in his 1849 article "The Magyar Struggle," Engels wrote that the Slavs living in theAustrian Empire were "barbarians" who "needed to be saved" by the German Austrians.[21]
Gustav Freytag's 1855 novelSoll und Haben ("Debt and Credit") was one of the most-read German novels of the 19th century, and contained antisemitic sentiments as well as depictions of Poles as incompetent.[22]
Anti-Slavic racism played a significant role within the ideology ofNazism.[24]Adolf Hitler and theNazi Party held the belief that Slavic countries - particularlyPoland, theSoviet Union, andYugoslavia, as well as their respectivepeoples - were"Untermenschen" (subhumans). According to their viewpoint, these Slavic nations were deemed to beforeign entities and were not considered part of theAryanmaster race. Nazi Germany depicted the Soviet Union as an "Asiatic enemy" of Europeans, in addition to portraying its population as inferior subhumans controlled byJews andcommunists.[25]
Hitler’s autobiography,Mein Kampf, expressed anti-Slavic views. Among others, he wrote: “One ought to cast the utmost doubt on the state-building power of the Slavs,” and from the beginning, he rejected the idea of incorporating the Slavs intoGreater Germany.[24][26]
Hitler considered the Slavs to be racially inferior, because, in his view, theBolshevik Revolution had put the Jews in power over the mass of Slavs, who were, by his own definition, incapable of ruling themselves but were instead being ruled by Jewish masters.[27] He considered the development of modern Russia to have been the work of Germanic, not Slavic, elements in the nation, but believed those achievements had been undone and destroyed by theOctober Revolution,[28] inMein Kampf, he wrote, “The organization of a Russian state formation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slavs in Russia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacity of the German element in an inferior race.”[29]
Because, according to the Nazis,the German people needed more territory to sustain its surplus population, an ideology of conquest and depopulation was formulated forCentral and Eastern Europe according to the principle ofLebensraum, itself based on an older theme in German nationalism which maintained that Germany had a "natural yearning" to expand its borders eastward (Drang Nach Osten).[24] The Nazis' policy towards Slavs was to exterminate or enslave the vast majority of the Slavic population and repopulate their lands with millions of ethnic Germans and otherGermanic peoples.[30][31] According to the resulting genocidalGeneralplan Ost, millions of German and other "Germanic" settlers would be moved into the conquered territories, and the original Slavic inhabitants were to be annihilated, removed, or enslaved.[24] The policy was focused especially on the Soviet Union, as it alone was deemed capable of providing enough territory to accomplish this goal.[32]
"Hitler gave the already existing ideas of anti-Semitism, anti-Bolshevism, andanti-Slavism the form of a genocidal alternative: either we survive or the Jews, Bolsheviks,Slavs – the people of the East – do. Based on theories of a racial hierarchy, he built the directives for an extermination programme aimed at part of the population of Europe andAsia and the creation of a Teutonic “New Order”. ... The concept of NaziLebensraum cannot be fully explained without bluntly stating an important motivational element of his conquests in the East: anti-Slavism."[33]
As part of theGeneralplan Ost, Nazi Germany developed theHunger Plan, a forced starvation programme which involved the seizure of all of the food that was produced in Eastern European lands and the delivery of it to Germany, primarily to the German army. The full implementation of this plan would have ultimately resulted in the starvation and death of 20 to 30 million people (mainly Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians). It is estimated that in accordance with this plan, over four million Soviet citizens were starved to death from 1941 to 1944.[34] The resettlement policy reached a much more advanced stage inoccupied Poland because of its immediate proximity to Germany.[24]
For strategic reasons, the Nazis deviated from some of their ideological theories by forging alliances withUkrainian collaborators[citation needed], theIndependent State of Croatia (established after theinvasion of Yugoslavia), theSlovak State (established after theoccupation of Czechoslovakia[citation needed]) andBulgaria. Yugoslav generalMilan Nedić would also lead Nazi Germany'sSerbian puppet government.[35] The Nazis officially justified these alliances by stating that the Croats were "more Germanic than Slav," a notion which was propagated by Croatia's leaderAnte Pavelić, who espoused the view that the "Croats were the descendants of the ancientGoths" who "had thepan-Slavic idea forced upon them as something artificial".[36][37][38] Hitler also believed that the Bulgarians were "Turkoman", while the Czechs and Slovaks wereMongolians in their origins.[37] After conquering Yugoslavia, attention was instead focused on targeting mainly the nation's Jewish and Roma (Gypsy) population.[35]
Though Slavophobia became less prevalent after WWII, it still persisted to some degree and still persists today. Slavic immigrants in Germany experience discrimination due to their accents, their surnames, and their cuisine.[39] Sincethe invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2022, Russian speakers in Germany have faced increased discrimination, including collective blame for Russia's actions in the war, despite most having lived in Germany for decades and many not being Russian at all. Since the Russian language was thelingua franca of the Soviet Union, an immigrant living in Germany who speaks Russian could be from anywhere that was influenced by the Soviet Union.[22]
Traditionally,[when?] inGreece, Slavic people were considered "invaders who separated the glory ofGreek Antiquity, by bringing an era of decline and ruin to Greece – the Dark Ages."[40] In 1913, after theFirst andSecond Balkan wars, when Greece took control of Slavic-inhabited areas in Northern Greece, theSlavic toponyms were changed to Greek, and according to the Greek government, this was "the elimination of all the names which pollute and disfigure the beautiful appearance of our fatherland."[41]
Anti-Slavic sentiment escalated during theGreek Civil War, whenMacedonian partisans, who aligned themselves with theDemocratic Army of Greece, were not treated as equals and suffered discrimination everywhere, they were accused of committing a "sin" because they chose to identify themselves as Slavs rather than Greeks.[42] The Macedonian partisans were subjected to threats of extermination, physical attacks, murder, attacks on their settlements, forcible expulsions, restrictions on freedom of movement, and bureaucratic problems, among other discriminatory acts.[42] Although they were allied with the Greek Left, due to their Slavic identity, theMacedonians were viewed with suspicion and animosity by the Greek Left.[43]
In 1948, theDemocratic Army of Greece evacuated tens of thousands ofchild refugees, both Greek and Slavic in origin.[44] In 1985, the refugees were allowed to re-enter Greece, claim Greek citizenship, and reclaim property, but only if they were "Greek by genus", thus prohibiting those with a Slavic identity from obtaining Greek citizenship, entering Greece, and claiming property.[45][46]
Today, the Greek state does not recognize itsethnic Macedonian and otherSlavic minorities, claiming that they do not exist, with Greece therefore having the right not to grant them any of the rights that are guaranteed to them by human-rights treaties.[47]
TheUnited States of America has a long history of Slavophobia. Slavophobia began in earnest during the "second wave" of European immigration in the early 1900s, when many people from Southern and Eastern Europe were immigrating to the US.[4] They faced opposition from the "old" immigrants, who were mostly from Northern and Western Europe. These attitudes culminated in theImmigration Act of 1924, which established quotas for and limited the numbers of people from Southern and Eastern European countries who were allowed to enter the US.[48] Slavic peoples were considered to be people of an "inferior race" who were unable to assimilate into American society.[4] They were originally not considered to be "fully white" (and thus fully American), and Slavic peoples' "whiteness" continues to be a debate to this day, but most people consider them to be of Caucasian culture.[49]
Slavophobia in the US ramped up again during theCold War, when Slavic peoples of all nationalities were considered enemies due to the United States' distrust of the Soviet Union.[50] War in the Balkans (which America often had a part in) was considered inevitable due to the Balkan peoples' "propensity for extreme war violence."[50] The United States government, while claiming to advocate for national determination for small countries, has denied national determination to many of the countries in Eastern Europe and the Balkans.[51] As a result, many Slavic people in the US and Western countries felt pressure (and continue to feel pressure) to Anglicize their surnames and downplay their Slavic culture.[52] For example, as shown in the filmThe Founder, Czech-AmericanRay Kroc stubbornly insisted on seizing control of theMcDonald's brand from theMcDonald brothers, when he could have easily stolen their system and built his own company. He recognized that the real value of the company was in its name; people were less likely to eat at a restaurant called "Kroc's".[53]
In American pop culture, Slavic people (specifically Russians) are usually portrayed as either nefarious, violent criminals[54] or as unintelligent, oblivious comic relief.[55][56]"Dumb Pole" jokes or "Polish jokes" (derogatory jokes towards Polish people) are just one manifestation ofanti-Polish sentiment in America, and can be found in all sorts of media from many time periods.[57]
Slavophobia has had a resurgence in America followingRussia's invasion of Ukraine, where Russian-Americans and people of Russian descent have been collectively blamed for the Russian government's actions.[52][58]
Notes
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)it led to adoption of anti-Slavic component
Albanian intelligentsia, despite the backwardness of their country and culture: 'We Albanians are the original and autochthonous race of the Balkans. The Slavs are conquerors and immigrants who came but yesterday from Asia.'
Great Soviet Encyclopaedia of Moscow... (March 1950): "The literary activities of the Catholic priest Gjergj Fishta reflect the role played by the Catholic clergy in preparing for Italian aggression against Albania. As a former agent of Austro-Hungarian imperialism, Fishta... took a position against the Slavic peoples who opposed the rapacious plans of Austro-Hungarian imperialism in Albania. In his chauvinistic, anti-Slavic poem 'The highland lute,' this spy extolled the hostility of the Albanians towards the Slavic peoples, calling for an open fight against the Slavs".
When dealing with such a race as Slavic – inferior and barbarian – we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy. We should not be afraid of new victims. The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass, Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps. I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians.[permanent dead link]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)But during and after theCivil War of 1943-1949, the 'Slavs' themselves became a national enemy. Throughout the Civil War, the Slav Macedonians of northern Greece made an important contribution to theCommunist cause. A strong link was thus established between national identity and political orientation, as the Civil War and the subsequent defeat of theleft-wing movement turned Slav Macedonians into theSudetens of Greece (Augustinos 1989: 23). By 1950, those embracing the ideology of the right saw their political rivals as the embodiment of everything that was anti-national, Communist, and Slavic. To hold Fallmerayeran views thus became a crimen laesae maiestatis. Dionysios A. Zakythinos, the author of the first monograph on medieval Slavs in Greece, wrote of the Dark Ages separating Antiquity from the Middle Ages as an era of decline and ruin which was brought by Slavic invaders (Zakythinos 1945: 72 and 1966: 300, 302 and 316). In the United States, Peter Charanis regarded EmperorNikephoros I as the hero who saved Greece fromSlavonicisation (Charanis 1946). The early medieval Slavs thus became a historiographic problem, to slavikon zetema.
The terror campaign which was unleashed after Varkiza against the entire Left by the Greek Right was directed with special vehemence against the Macedonians. In addition to the ideological "treachery" of supporting EAM-ELAS, they were attacked for committing the ultimate "sin" of not being, or rather not considering themselves, Greeks. They were condemned as Bulgars, komitajis, collaborators, autonomists, Sudetens of the Balkans, and so forth, and threatened with extermination.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)Bloomsbury Collections. Web. 5 Oct. 2021.http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781628928273.ch-004
