Modernanti-Japanese sentiment inChina is frequently rooted in nationalist or historical conflicts, for example, it is rooted in the atrocities and thewar crimes whichImperial Japan committed in China during theFirst Sino-Japanese War, theBoxer Rebellion (Eight-Nation Alliance), theSiege of Tsingtao, theSecond Sino-Japanese War and Japan'shistory textbook controversies.
Bitterness persists in China as a result of the Second Sino-Japanese War and Japan's post-war actions. At least to some extent, this sentiment may also be influenced byissues which affectChinese people in Japan.
According to a 2017BBC World Service poll, mainland Chinese people hold the largest anti-Japanese sentiment in the world, with 75% of Chinese people viewing Japan's influence negatively, and 22% expressing a positive view. Anti-Japanese sentiment in China was at its highest in 2014 since the poll was first conducted in 2006 and was up 16 percent over the previous year.[citation needed] However, anti-Japanese sentiment significantly decreased by 2018; a poll done in 2018 byGenron NPO showed that 42.2% of Chinese people looked positively to Japan, up from 31.5% in 2017.[1]
ThroughoutChinese history, with the exception of the raids which were committed by theWokou (Japanese pirates) during the lateMing dynasty and theJapanese invasions of Korea in which Ming China intervened on the side of Korea, there had been little serious conflicts between China and Japan.[citation needed]
However, due to theMeiji Restoration, Japan became a modern power and it also attempted to expand itsempire in Asia, including China. In the lateQing dynasty,Japan seized concessions in parts of the Chinese mainland and annexed Taiwan and Penghu from China, as well as removing the vassal states ofRyukyu Kingdom andKorea from China's sphere of influence and later annexing them. Dissatisfaction with the settlement and theTwenty-One Demands by the Imperial Japanese government led to a severeboycott of Japanese products in China in 1915.[citation needed]
TheTungans (Chinese Muslims,Hui people) had anti-Japanese sentiment.[2][3]
After theMukden Incident in 1931, which was used as pretext for theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Manchuria came under Japanese control. A puppet state namedManchukuo was set up with the deposed emperorPuyi as the head of state. In 1937, theMarco Polo Bridge Incident that happened in Beijing became the pretext to the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Most reasons for anti-Japanese sentiment inChina can be directly traced to theSecond Sino-Japanese War, which was also the first theatre ofWorld War II. As a consequence of the war, China suffered 7 million to 16 million civilian deaths and 3 million military casualties.[4][5]
There is deep resentment over the veneration of Imperial Japanese war veterans in theYasukuni Shrine, where a number ofwar criminals are enshrined, treated askami or important spirits, and the fact that the shrine openly states that the purpose of Japanese military involvement in Asia was to bring prosperity and liberation to Asians. This is further exacerbated by attempts to whitewash Japan's role in the war in certain school history textbooks, such as by softening some statements and removing others. That some popular media such as comics,[6] books, movies, or documentaries depicting Japanese wartime involvement in atrocities are withdrawn due to nationalist or popular sentiment further contributes to this image. As examples, critics point to the withdrawal ofIris Chang'sThe Rape of Nanking from planned publication and the censorship of scenes of the Nanjing Massacre from the Japanese theatrical release ofThe Last Emperor.[7]
China refused war reparations from Japan[8] in the 1972Joint Communiqué. Japan gave official development assistance (ODA), amounting to 3 trillion yen (US$30 billion).[citation needed] According to estimates, Japan accounts for more than 60 percent of China's ODA received. About 25 percent of the funding for all of China's infrastructure projects between 1994 and 1998 — including roads, railways, telecom systems and harbours — came from Japan.[9]
Japanese aid to China was rarely formally publicized to the Chinese people by the Chinese government, until Japan announced that aid was to be phased out. It was finally publicly acknowledged by Chinese premierWen Jiabao during his April 2007 trip to Japan.[10]
There is a perception among some Chinese that theUnited States,Japan, andTaiwan are attempting to contain China. Japan's more recent debate to reviseArticle 9, the "No War" clause, is viewed with suspicion of possible re-militarization. Anti-Japanese sentiment in China is also highlighted by the branding of several prominent Taiwanese politicians (especially those who advocate forTaiwanese independence) as "Japaneserunning dogs" andhanjian (traitors) by Chinesestate media.[citation needed]
Issues from the Second World War continue to generate ill-feeling in China. One issue is Japanese disposal ofchemical weapons left in China by Japanese troops at the end of the war. TheChemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which came into effect in April 1997, and the Memorandum on the Destruction of Japanese Discarded Chemical Weapons in China, signed on 30 July 1999, required Japan to dispose of an estimated 700,000 abandoned chemical weapons (Japanese estimate). Japan was unable to complete the work on time and requested a five-year extension.[13][14][15]
Chinese plaintiffs suing the Japanese government over accidents caused by the unearthing of poison gas have had difficulty gaining satisfaction from Japanese courts. Forty-three people who were injured in a 2003 accident and five relatives of one who died have been unsuccessful in their claim for 1.43 billion yen (US$11.8 million; €9.1 million), as well as for medical costs and loss of income due to health problems.[16][17]
On March 13, 2007, theTokyo High Court upheld a lower court ruling and rejected compensation claims from four Chinese people who were injured and one whose relative died from being exposed to chemical weapons abandoned by Imperial Japan in China at the end of the war. Presiding Judge Hiromitsu Okita said the Japanese government was not liable for death or injury from the weapons, saying it could not have conducted a proper search for weapons in another country. The plaintiffs had sought a combined 80 million yen from the Japanese government. The court said the state was not obligated to conduct a search or to pay damages "because it cannot be said that the defendants could have prevented the outcome" of the death and injuries in the case, according toJapan Times.[18] There were at least 700,000 pieces of chemical weapons Japan buried in China with site information destroyed by Japanese military according to theJapanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[19] Such lawsuits have been filed before,[20] but Japanese courts have rejected most claims filed by individual WWII war crime victims.[21]
In March 2007, Japanese Prime MinisterShinzo Abe sparked a row over "comfort women". A group of about 120 lawmakers from Abe's governing party wanted the prime minister to revise the official apology. The lawmakers claimed there was no evidence to suggest the Imperial Japanese Army was directly involved in coercing the women. They said they would present the government with a petition next week demanding a rewrite of the apology, which they considered a stain on Japan's national honor. Abe told reporters in his Tokyo office that he shared the belief that there was no direct proof of the military's involvement, stating: "The fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coercion," he said according toLA Times.[22][23] Abe said the government would cooperate with a study to be conducted by a group of Liberal Democratic party MPs who are skeptical of claims that thousands of Asian women were forced to work in Japanese military brothels before and during the Second World War according toGuardian.[24] After the condemnation around the world, Abe made a qualified apology, saying "I express my sympathy for the hardships they suffered and offer my apology for the situation they found themselves in." Abe told the legislature when pressed on what he would say to the aging survivors of the "comfort women" system: "As the prime minister, I am apologizing here" according to theLos Angeles Times.[25]
In 2024 a book titledAnti-Japan Tribalism was published byLee Young-hoon[26] that critiques widely accepted anti-Japanese narratives in Korea, arguing they are rooted in historical distortions and nationalist agendas. While the book addresses South Korea, it underscores how similar narratives in other East Asian nations, such asChina, have contributed to persistent anti-Japanese sentiment.[27]
There have been several reports that stores, restaurants, public institutions and hospitals in China refuse to serve Japanese customers because Japan has not apologized for the invasion of China.[28][29] UnderXi Jinping, online hate speech against the Japanese has risen.[30] Online vitriol has been aimed at Japanese-language schools in China.[31] In July 2024, aknife attack on a Japanese woman and her child at theJapanese School of Suzhou led some Chinese social media users to write in support of the attacker, although the posts were condemned and quickly removed.[30][32][33] A Chinese woman who had intervened to stop the attacker later died from her wounds.[34][35][36] In September 2024, on the anniversary of theMukden incident, a 10-year-old Japanese student wasstabbed to death en route to a Japanese primary school in Shenzhen.[37][38][39] Online discussion of the killing was widely censored.[40] However, some condoned or were supportive of the killing.[41]
During the2004 Asian Cup held in China, Chinese fans booed theJapanese team during the playing of theJapanese national anthem at matches against several countries, including China. Except for the match againstBahrain, Japanese supporters were instructed by the local police not to use "banners, flags, musical instruments or wear team uniforms" and were asked to refrain from cheering. The flight to Beijing, the venue of the final match against China, was delayed for two hours due to Chinese protesters atBeijing International Airport. After Japan defeated China 3–1 in the final, Chinese fans were enraged and the Japanese ambassador's car was severely damaged.[42]
At the last game of Group A of2007 FIFA Women's World Cup held inHangzhou, tens of thousands of Chinese spectators in attendance cheered for the German team and booed the Japanese team vehemently. Japan was defeated by Germany and knocked out of the tournament prematurely. The Japanese players later held up a banner to thank China ("Arigato 謝謝 (Xie Xie) China") at the end of the game while the audience applauded in response. The incident caused minor controversy in China over theChinese nationalism and anti-Japanese sentiment displayed at the game.[43][44]
The game was originally planned to be held on September 18, the anniversary of the Mukden Incident. Because of the sensitive nature of the date in China, it was held one day earlier.[45]
During the2008 WAFF Cup, Chinese fans booed the Japanese anthem again in Japan's first match againstNorth Korea inChongqing on February 17. The attitude of Chinese fans had not improved despite police warnings before the game.[46][47] After the match between the Japanese team and theChinese national team on February 20, a small group of Chinese fansburnt theJapanese national flag and booed the Japanese team with the derogatory term,xiǎo Rìběn (小日本, "puny Japanese").[48]
Following the signing of legendary Argentine footballerLionel Messi,Major League Soccer sideInter Miami embarked on a global preseason tour in 2024, which included matches inHong Kong against theHong Kong League XI andTokyo againstVissel Kobe. During the February 4 match in Hong Kong, Messi was not active due to an injury, which caused fans to demand refunds of 4,880HKD ($US 624) while also booing him and attacking promotional posters featuring him. Messi was later active in the match against Vissel Kobe on February 7, which caused people to believe that Messi was faking his injury to embarrass Hong Kong. Some fans in both Hong Kong and mainland China went as far as to accuse Messi of holding racist views against Chinese people in favor of Japanese people.[49]
In 2006, the Chinese governmentcensored what it viewed as excessive anti-Japanese sentiment online related to theSenkaku Islands dispute.[50]: 306
In 2012, the Japanese government decided to purchase the Senkaku Islands from a Japanese family.Riots broke out in most Chinese major cities, and Japanese-owned business were smashed.[51] InShenzhen, the rioting crowd tried to take over a government building, demanding the Chinese government to declare war with Japan. There were multiple reports where people who were using Japanese products were attacked in the public. There was a report that a man in Hainan Province was stabbed to death for saying that Japan may win if a war between China and Japan broke out.[citation needed]
A 2023 study found that the boycotts of Japanese goods had a persistent adverse impact on Japanese automobile sales in China.[52]
Anti-Japanese sentiment can be seen in anti-Japanese war films produced and displayed in mainland China. More than 200 anti-Japanese films are made in China each year.[53] In one situation involving a more moderate anti-Japanese war film, the government of China temporarily banned 2000'sDevils on the Doorstep, partly because it depicted a Japanese soldier being friendly with Chinese villagers.[54]
Natsumatsuri (夏祭り,lit. Summer Festival) events in mainland China were cancelled after protests broke out since 16 July 2022. Some people, reasoning that because natsumatsuri originates in Japan, claim that it should not be a festival celebrated in China.[55] A scandal in theXuanzang Temple in which some Imperial Japanese Army generals who were convicted war criminals were memorialized contributed to anti-Japanese sentiment.[56]