 | This article has multiple issues. Please helpimprove it or discuss these issues on thetalk page.(Learn how and when to remove these messages) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
|
Anti-Greek sentiment, also known asHellenophobia[1][2] (Greek:ελληνοφοβία,romanized: ellinophobía),[3]anti-Hellenism[4][5] (Greek:ανθελληνισμός,romanized: anthellinismós),mishellenism[6][7] (Greek:μισελληνισμός,romanized: misellinismós), orGreek-bashing,[8] refers to negative attitudes, dislike, hatred, derision, racism, prejudice, stereotypes, or discrimination towardsGreeks, theHellenic Republic, orGreek culture. Hellenophobia is the opposite ofphilhellenism.
In the mid–Republican period, Roman intellectuals, both phil-Hellenic and anti-Hellenic, were involved in a conflict over Greek influence. One author explains, "the relationship of Romans to Greek culture was frequently ambiguous: they admired it as superior and adopted its criteria, while they remained skeptical of some aspects; hence they adapted it selectively according to their own purposes."[9] An anti-Hellenic movement emerged in reaction to the primacy of Greek, led by the conservative and reactionary statesmanCato the Elder (234–149 BC), who was the first to write a Roman history in Latin and was prominent for his anti-Hellenic views.[10][11] He considered Hellenism as a threat to Roman culture; however, his views did not receive widespread public approval, especially amongst the upper class of Roman society.[12] However,Erich S. Gruen argued that Cato's "anti-Greek 'pronouncements' reflect deliberate posturing and do not represent 'the core of Catonian thought'."[13] The prominent philosopher and politicianCicero (106–43 BC) was "highly ambivalent" about Greeks,[14] and practiced "anti-Greek slur."[15] The first-second century poetJuvenal was another major anti-Hellenic figure.[16][17]
In the aftermath of theEast–West Schism of 1054, anti-Greek sentiments gained widespread traction in theLatin West (dominated by theRoman Catholic Church). It reached its climax during theFourth Crusade, most notably, with the 1204sack of Constantinople, the capital of theByzantine Empire, by the Crusader andVenetian forces, and the subsequent establishment of theLatin Empire by theCrusaders.[18]
InEast Sicily,Calabria, andMalta, Christian Greeks were persecuted byArabs during the period of theEmirate of Sicily. Later on, Latin-speakingCatholics persecuted theOrthodox Greeks in Eastern Sicily, and Arabic-speakingCatholics persecuted theOrthodox Greeks in Malta.
During theinterwar period (1918–1939), the Albanian government closed down many Greek schools as part of its forced assimilation policies.[19]
During theCommunist rule in Albania (1944–1992), the Albanian communist government severely restricted the use of the Greek language and Greek names by thecountry's Greek minority in an attempt at its forced assimilation.[20] During theGreek Civil War, anti-Greek sentiments were alarmingly widespread in the country, especially in the circle ofEnver Hoxha, the communist leader of Albania.[21] These negative attitudes towards Greeks continued, at the very least, until 1985, when Hoxha passed away.
In post-Communist Albania, "there are no significant explicitly racist or chauvinist political parties", although, according toJames Pettifer, "there are many individual politicians who adhere to very strong anti-Greek views, which in turn affects the orientation of virtually all ethnic Albanian political parties."[22] In a 2013 poll in Albania, Greece topped the list of countries perceived to be a threat to Albania (18.5%), although the plurality of respondents (46.4%) agreed with the statement "No country is a threat to Albania."[23]
Greeks in Australia have been subject to discrimination. During World War I, due to KingConstantine I's pro-German sympathies, Greek immigrants were viewed with hostility and suspicion. Anti-Greek riots occurred inSydney in 1915,[24]Perth in 1915 and inKalgoorlie in 1916.[25][26]
The word "wog" is an ethnic slur that is often used in Australia to refer toSouthern European andMiddle Eastern people of theMediterranean region, including Greeks. It is also sometimes used againstSouth Asians.[27] Additionally, this term has also been adopted and used by Greek Australians to refer to themselves, as well as the sitcomAcropolis Now (1989–1992), the television spin-off of the 1987 playWogs Out of Work,[28] and the 2000 filmThe Wog Boy.
In 1906, during theMacedonian Struggle, anti-Greek rallies and violent attacks occurred in multiple Bulgarian cities. InPlovdiv, Greek Orthodox churches and schools, Greek-owned properties were looted and plundered. InPomorie (Anchialos), the Greek population was expelled after the city was set on fire, and up to 110 Greeks were murdered. Pogroms also took place inVarna,Burgas, and several other locations.[29] Following that series of pogroms, around 20,000 Greeks fled or were forcibly expelled from Bulgaria.[30]
Between 2 and 5 August 1918, athree-day anti-Greek riot occurred in Toronto. "Mobs of up to 5,000 people, led by war veteransreturned from Europe, marched through the city's main streets, waging pitched battles with law enforcement officers and destroying every Greek business they came across." It is estimated that, as a consequence of the riot, approximately $100,000 of damage was caused to Greek businesses and private property.[31]
AfterBenito Mussolini'sBlackshirts militia took power in Italy with theMarch on Rome in October 1922,fascists ruled the country for more than 20 years untilItaly's surrender inWorld War II, in September 1943. Besides launching a nationwide campaign of persecution and oppression ofSlavic,Jewish, andRoma people, they also persecutedItaly's Greek speakers.[32]
TheMacedonia naming dispute, since thebreakup of Yugoslavia, has given rise to anti-Greek sentiment in theRepublic of North Macedonia.[33] According to journalist John Phillips, there was "considerable popular anti-Greek feeling in Macedonia" in 2004.[34] On the contrary, German diplomat Geert-Hinrich Ahrens (ger) wrote in 2007 that he "had never detected any anti-Greek manifestations" in the republic.[35]
The main opposition party of the Republic of North Macedonia,Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization – Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE), founded in 1990, includes the name ofInternal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, a revolutionary movement active in the early 20th century, which is regarded by Greeks as "a notorious anti-Greek terrorist organization."[36] During the party's First Congress,Ljubčo Georgievski, the party's first leader, declared that "the next Congress will convene in Solun" (Thessaloniki inSouth Slavic languages).[37]According to Dimitar Bechev, a British-based international relations researcher, then Prime Minister of North MacedoniaNikola Gruevski (the leader of VMRO-DPMNE) exploited "anti-Greek nationalism" during the2008 parliamentary election.[38] Furthermore, in 2012, Gruevski accused Greece of having waged "political genocide" against his country. Greek Foreign Ministry spokesman Gregory Delavekouras responded that Gruevski's statements "stoke the systematic negative government propaganda that is aimed at turning public opinion in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia against Greece."[39]
At its inception, Romanian national historiography was heavily influenced by romanticism. This led to a reconsideration of the role played by thePhanariotes, who ruled modern day Romania as emissaries of the Ottoman Empire. Romanian national poetMihai Eminescu described Greeks as "the poison of the Orient, hypocritical people who crave to exploit others." The hellenophobic tendency in Romanian historiography was reversed through the work of historianNicolae Iorga.[40]
During the course of theMacedonian Struggle, Romania founded theMacedo-Romanian Cultural Society which conducted ethnographic expeditions to Macedonia,Epirus andThessaly. The Society later took up the role of representing Romania interests in the region. The propagation of Romanian nationalist ideals among theAromanian communities, created a rift between the two countries known as theAromanian question. Another important issue was the status of the inheritances ofGreeks in Romania. In 1892, Romania refused to hand over the property of the recently deceased Greek expatriate Konstantinos Zappas to the Greek state citing an article of the Romanian constitution forbidding foreign nationals from owning agricultural land. The Trikoupis government then recalled its ambassador in Bucharest, Romania followed suit thus severing diplomatic relations between the countries. Diplomatic relations were restored in July 1896, in response to a rise of Bulgariankomitadji activity in Macedonia. In 1905, the two countries exchanged accusations regarding the Aromanian question. Romania claimed that Greek armed bands targeted ethnic Romanians in Macedonia, whereas Greece accused Romania of trying to create a false equation between Aromanians and Romanians.[40]
Hellenophobic articles began appearing in the Romanian press. On 2 August 1905, the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society organized an anti-Greek protest in Bucharest, attended by army officers, students and ethnic Aromanians. After decrying Greek war crimes in Macedonia, the organizers called for a boycott of Greek products and services. Rioting was prevented by a large force of Romaniangendarmerie. On the same day a Greek owned cafe in Bucharest was vandalized and its owner beaten. Several days later three editors of the Greek-language newspaperPatris were expelled from the country for sedition. Additionally, on 13 August, protesters set on fire a Greek flag inGiurgiu. An official remonstrance by the Greek ambassador Tombazis was rebutted leading to a mutual withdrawal of embassies on 15 September. In November, the Romanian government allocated funding for the creation of armed Aromanian bands in Macedonia, a parallel motion closed numerous Greek schools in the country. In February 1906, six leading members of the Greek community were expelled from the country, citing their alleged funding of Greek bands in Macedonia. In July 1906, the Greek government officially severeddiplomatic relations with Romania. In 1911, Greek prime ministerEleftherios Venizelos used the occasion of theItalo-Turkish War to improve relations with Bulgaria and Romania, restoring diplomatic relations with the latter.[40]
Between 1919 and 1924 around 47,000 Greeks emigrated from Russia to Greece as a result of the official and unofficial anti-Greek sentiment in Russia, which in its turn was a result of the Greek intervention in the Black Sea region in theRussian Civil War against the Bolsheviks.[41]
Tens of thousands of Greeks were deported to the remote parts of the Soviet Union during World War II in theGreek Operation of NKVD.
Anti-Greek sentiment is "deeply rooted" in the Turkish public.[42] A 2011 survey in Turkey revealed that 67% of respondents had unfavorable views toward Greeks, though only 6% said they saw Greece as their main enemy in a poll carried out that same year.[43] Despite this, according to political scientist Emre Erdogan, Greece remains one of the "eternal enemies of Turkey", along with Armenia.[44] Journalist Dr. Cenk Saraçoğlu ofAnkara University argues that anti-Greek attitudes in Turkey "are no longer constructed and shaped by social interactions between the 'ordinary people' [...] Rather, the Turkish media and state promote and disseminate an overtly anti-Greek discourse."[45] On the other hand, Turkish political scientist Bahar Rumelili wrote in 2007:[46]
Both the Turkish government and the Turkish military have made public statements that Turkey no longer sees Greece as its rival. While a small minority in Turkish society maintains its anti-Greek sentiments and actions, there is a growing liking for Greek society and culture and an increasing awareness of the Greek heritage in Turkey.
In 1821 Greeks of Constantinople weremassacred in response to theGreek War of Independence, while PatriarchGregory V of Constantinople was hanged.
During and following World War I, almost all of the Greek population of Anatolia was eitherexterminated by the Ottoman government or later transferred to Greece as part of apopulation exchange based on religious affiliation.
In September 1955 the Turkish government sponsoredanti-Greek riots and pogrom inConstantinople.[47][48] Thedispute over Cyprus kept anti-Greek feelings in Turkey high. At the height of theintercommunal violence in Cyprus, thousands ofGreeks were expelled from Turkey in 1964–1965, mostly Constantinople. In March 1964, all persons (over 6,000) with Greek citizenship were expelled "on the grounds that they were dangerous to the 'internal and external' security of the state." Additionally, in September 1964, 10,000 Greeks were expelled.Cumhuriyet reported that 30,000 "Turkish nationals of Greek descent had left permanently, in addition to the Greeks who had been expelled."[49] Within months a total of 40,000 Greeks were expelled from Constantinople.[50]
In 1999 Turkey "was again swept by a wave of anti-Greek sentiment, encouraged by the Turkish government"[51] following the capture of theKurdistan Workers' Party leaderAbdullah Öcalan in Nairobi, Kenya who was initially hiding in the Greek embassy.[52] However, as a result of the "earthquake diplomacy" and the subsequent rapprochement efforts between Greece and Turkey, the public perception of Greece as their main enemy decreased in Turkey from 29% in 2001 to 16.9% in 2004.[53]
TheGrey Wolves, a far-right organization associated with theNationalist Movement Party (MHP), routinely demonstrate outside theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in thePhanar district and burn thePatriarch ineffigy.[54] In October 2005 they staged a rally and proceeding to the gate they laid a black wreath, chanting "Patriarch Leave" and "Patriarchate to Greece", inaugurating the campaign for the collection of signatures to oust the Ecumenical Patriarchate from Constantinople.[55] As of 2006 the Grey Wolves claimed to have collected more than 5 million signatures for the withdrawal of the Patriarch[56] and called on the Turkish government to have the patriarch deported to Greece.[57]
In the early 20th centuryGreeks in the United States were discriminated against in many ways. In 1904 Greek immigrants, unaware of labor conditions and largely inexperienced, served asstrikebreakers during a strike in Chicago diesel shops. This fueled anti-Greek sentiment among union members. Three Greek immigrants were killed during a riot in 1908 inMcGill, Nevada.[58] On February 21, 1909, a majoranti-Greek riot took place inSouth Omaha, Nebraska. The Greek population was forced to leave the city, while properties owned by Greek migrants were destroyed.[59] Greeks were viewed with particular contempt in the Mormon stronghold of Utah. The local press characterized them as "a vicious element unfit for citizenship" and as "ignorant, depraved, and brutal foreigners." Anti-Greek riots occurred in Salt Lake City in 1917 which "almost resulted" in lynching of a Greek immigrant.[58] In 1922, as a response to the anti-Greeknativist xenophobia by theKu Klux Klan (KKK), theAmerican Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA) was founded, which sought toAmericanize the Greek immigrant in America.[60]
InMontgomery County, Maryland, a suburban county bordering Washington, D.C., some property deeds for houses include discriminatorycovenants that excluded Greek-Americans prior to the passage of theFair Housing Act of 1968.[61]
In December 2014,MTV aired the first episode of its newreality showGrowing Up Greek. It was immediately denounced by Greek Americans and characterized as "stereotype-laden"[62] and "offensive".[63] TheAmerican Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA) called for it to be canceled.[64]
In recent years, anti-Greek sentiment has emerged within neopagan communities through efforts to redefine Hellenism as a modern pagan religion. This usage of either "Hellenismos" or "Hellenism" as a religion and religious identity is considered objectionable and harmful towards Greek identity.[65] In an interview inTablet magazine, American independent scholar Angelo Nasios explained that: "Hellenism refers simply to Greekness. Recontextualizing it within a religious framework ... can cause confusion for outsiders, and untethers the tradition from its ethnic and historical origins."[66] Nasios is also quoted saying elsewhere that: "Hellenism is not a religious label for Greeks (Hellenes). Rather, it is a word that expresses a multitude of elements that constitute our identity. Hellenism or Hellenismos refers to our entire ethnos and the diaspora."[67]
As a result of theGreek government-debt crisis, starting in 2010, anti-Greek sentiments grew in some European countries, especially in Germany.[68][69][70] A 2014 study found, "An anti-Greek sentiment evolved and spread among German citizens and solidarity for crisis-hit Greece was mostly rejected."[71] In 2012Pew Research Center found, "Among the major European countries, Greece is clearly the least popular. And its reputation is slipping. In no country, other than Greece itself, is there a majority with a favorable view of Greece." Only 27% of respondents in Germany viewed Greece favorably.[72]
Hostile and unfavorable views towards Greece and Greeks were especially pronounced in thetabloid press. A 2013 study found that Western European news sources "indicate bias against Greece in financial crisis coverage" and "include stereotypes, the recommendation of austerity as a punishment, morality tales, an absence of solidarity, and fear mongering."[73] The popular German tabloidBild "published numerous reports that implicitly and explicitly constituted the myth of the corrupt and lazy Greeks in comparison to the hard-working Germans."[71] Dutch TV producer Ingeborg Beugel (nl) claimed that "the [anti-Greek] propaganda of the mainstream media provides Europe and the Netherlands with a convenientscapegoat to exploit."[74]
German politicians, such as the formerMinister for Foreign AffairsGuido Westerwelle and formerChancellorGerhard Schröder, publicly criticized the anti-Greek sentiment in their country and called for solidarity with Greece.[75][76][77]
Since in Asia Minor, as well as at Constantinople, Turkophilism carries with it as corollaries Hellenophobia and Armenophobia...
the much-maligned Turkish strain in Greek culture becomes a means of asserting difference, but always at the price of ridicule (not to speak of charges of anti-Hellenism!).
...mishellenism or hatred toward the Greeks...
Mishellenism and anti-Semitism are connected phenomena...
In reaction to the Greek-basing and doubts about Greek future in the Eurozone...
After persisting unresolved for ten years the 'name issue' has also been reflected in the growth of a mirroring nationalist anti-Greek movement in the Republic of Macedonia.
...Gruevski, riding the waves of anti-Greek nationalism.
Nevertheless, violent and highly visible Turkish eruptions of anti-Greek sentiment, like the 1955 Istanbul riots...
Anti-Greek sentiment came to a head during the government-sponsored riots of 5–6 September 1955
Many Germans weren't afraid to voice anti-Greek sentiments.
