Anito, also spelledanitu, refers toancestor spirits,evil spirits,[1][2][3]nature spirits, and deities called diwata in theIndigenous Philippine folk religions from theprecolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associations depending on the Filipino ethnic group. It also refers to carved humanoid figures made of wood, stone, or ivory,[1] that represent ancestral spirits[4] worshiped as protective household deities.[5][6]Anito (a term predominantly used inNorthern Luzon) is also sometimes known asdiwata in certain ethnic groups (especially amongVisayans).[7]
Pag-anito isséance, a ritual where a shaman (calledbabaylan inVisayan orkatalonan inTagalog) serves as amedium to talk to dead ancestors and spirits of the dead. This ceremony is often part of a celebration or other rituals. If the ritual involves a nature spirit or deity, it is calledPag-diwata, which includes worship or offering sacrifices to deities and spirits.[1][8][9]
The belief inanito are sometimes referred to asAnitism in scholarly literature (Spanish:anitismo oranitería)[4] literally means veneration of thespirits of the dead.[10][11][12]
Theninunò (lit. "ancestor") can be the spirits of actual ancestors, cultural heroes, or generalized guardian spirits of a family. Pre-colonial Filipinos believed that upon death, the "free"soul (Visayan:kalag; Tagalog:kaluluwa)[note 1] of a person travels to aspirit world, usually by voyaging across an ocean on a boat (abangka orbaloto).[1][18][19][20][21][22][23]
Manang carved images of household guardian spirits from theMandaya people
There can be multiple locations in the spirit world, varying in different ethnic groups.[note 2] Which place souls end up in depends on how they died, the age at death, or the conduct of the person when they were alive. There was no concept of heaven or hell prior to the introduction ofChristianity andIslam;[note 3] rather, the spirit world is usually depicted as anotherworld that exists alongside the material world. Souls reunite with deceased relatives in the spirit world and lead normal lives in the spirit world as they did in the material world. In some cases, the souls of evil people undergo penance and cleansing before they are granted entrance into a particular spirit realm. Souls would eventuallyreincarnate after a period of time in the spirit world.[1][18][4][24]
In some cultures (like among theKalinga people), the acceptance of a soul by ancestors into a certain realm in the spirit world requires tattoos (batok), by which they can gauge the worthiness of a soul. In other cultures, tattoos illuminate and guide the spirits during the journey to the afterlife.[25][26][27][28]
Souls in the spirit world still retain a degree of influence in the material world, and vice versa.Pag-anito may be used to invoke good ancestor spirits for protection, intercession (kalara orkalda), or advice. Ancestor spirits that become intercessors with deities are known aspintakasi orpitulon. Vengeful spirits of the dead can manifest as apparitions or ghosts (mantiw)[note 4] and cause harm to living people.Pag-anito can be used to appease or banish them.[1][4][14][17] Ancestor spirits also figured prominently during illness or death, as they were believed to be the ones who call the soul to the spirit world, guide the soul (apsychopomp), or meet the soul upon arrival.[1]
Spirits that have never been human are differentiated in some ethnic groups asdiwata. These spirits can range from simple spirits like thediwata of a particular inanimate object, plant, animal, or place,[note 5] to deities whopersonify abstract concepts and natural phenomena,[note 6] to deities who are part of an actualpantheon.[note 7] They are also known asdewatu,divata,duwata,ruwata,dewa,dwata,diya, etc., in various Philippine languages (includingTagalogdiwa, "spirit" or "essence"); all of which are derived fromSanskritdevata (देवता) ordevá (देव), meaning "deity". These names are the result ofsyncretization withHindu-Buddhist beliefs due to the indirect cultural exchange (viaSrivijaya andMajapahit) between the Philippines andSouth Asia.[1][4]
However, what entities are considereddiwata varies by ethnic group. In some ethnic groups like theB'laan,CuyononVisayans, and theTagalog,Diwata refers to thesupreme being in their pantheon,[note 8] in which case there are different terms for non-human spirits.[1][4][note 9] Like in ancestor spirits,diwata are referred to in politekinship titles when addressed directly, likeapo ("elder") ornuno ("grandparent").[4][36]
There are three general types of non-human spirits. The first are the environmental or nature spirits "bound" to a particular location or natural phenomenon (similar togenii loci). They "own" places and concepts like agricultural fields, forests, cliffs, seas, winds, lightning, or realms in the spirit world. Some were also "keepers" ortotems of various animals and plants. They have inhuman and abstract qualities, reflecting their particular dominions. They do not normally appear in human form and are usually gender-less or androgynous. They rarely concern themselves with human affairs. Rituals involving these spirits are almost always conducted outdoors.[33][37]
The second type of spirits are the "unbound" spirits which have independent existence. They appear in animal (usually as birds) or human-like forms, have gender differentiation, and have personal names. They are most similar to theelves andfairies of European folklore.[note 10][33] These are the most common types of spirits to becomeabyan (spirit guides ofbabaylan), as they are the most "sociable" and can take interest in human activities. These spirits are usually referred to asengkanto (from Spanishencanto) in modern Filipino folklore. Unlike the "bound" spirits, these spirits can be invited into human households, and their rituals can take place both outdoors and indoors.[33]
A fertility god of theBontoc people in anato (communal meeting circle)
The last is a class of malevolent spirits or demons, as well as supernatural beings, generally collectively known asaswang,yawa, ormangalos (alsomangalok,mangangalek, ormagalos) among Tagalogs and Visayans. There are numerous kinds ofaswang with specific abilities, behavior, or appearance. Examples includesigbin,wakwak,tiyanak, andmanananggal. The first two categories ofdiwata can also be malevolent, what sets the third category apart is that they can not be appealed to with offerings and they are utterly pitiless. Most practices associated with them is to ward them off, banish them, or destroy them. They are never addressed nor worshiped in religious rituals.[1][4][33][36][38][39]
Diwata are rarely spoken about openly for fear of attracting their attention. Instead they are referred to witheuphemisms like "those unlike us" (Visayan:dili ingon nato) or various names, likebanwaanon ortaga-banwa,[note 11] that translate literally to "dweller of a place".[40][41][42] Among Tagalogs, non-human nature spirits are also euphemistically referred to aslamanglupa ("[dwellers of] the bowels of the earth") orlamangdagat ("[dwellers of] the depths of the sea"), depending on their domain.[43]
Diwata exist in both the material world and the spirit world. They can be formless or have a material body. They can also take over a body throughspirit possession (Visayan:hola,hulak,tagdug, orsaob; Tagalog:sanib), an ability essential for theséances inpag-anito. They are believed to be capable ofshapeshifting (baliw orbaylo), becoming invisible, or creating visions or illusions (anino orlandung, lit. "shadow"). Their powers, however, are limited to their particular domain. Adiwata of a forest, for instance, has no dominion over the sea. Most are generally benevolent or capriciously neutral, although they can cause misfortunes and illnesses if angered, disrespected, or mistakenly encountered.[4][36][38][39] Other common characteristics ofdiwata are that they are perceived as an invisible "cold" presence (in contrast to "warm" human spirits); that they leave no footprints (unlike human spirits); and that they sense the world and "eat" by means of smelling.[33][note 12]Diwata who take human form are said to be pale-skinned and could be distinguished from humans by the absence of aphiltrum on the upper lip.[44][33]
Ifugaohogang in theBanaue Rice Terraces, guardian spirits carved fromtree fern trunks usually placed along pathways and in village outskirts
Diwata are often depicted as appearing to unsuspecting people in human or animal form, sometimes causing unintentional harm. They can also deliberately play tricks on mortals, like seducing or abducting beautiful men and women into the spirit world.[1][33] Certain places are believed to be owned bydiwata or are borders to the spirit world. These are normally avoided or only entered with precautions, especially duringtwilight whendiwata are believed to cross over from the spirit world into the material world. Harm or illness caused bydiwata are known asbuyag in Visayan andusog in Tagalog.[1][33] People who were harmed by interactions withdiwata are euphemistically described as having been "greeted" (Visayan:gibati, Tagalog:nabati) or "played with" (Visayangidulaan, Tagalog:napaglaruan ornakatuwaan) bydiwata.[43]
To avoid inadvertently angering adiwata, Filipinos perform a customarypasintabi sa nuno ("respectfully apologizing or asking permission from ancestors for passing").[note 13] This is done by saying the phrases "tao po" ("a human [is passing], elder), "tabi po" or "tabi apo" ("by your permission, elder")[note 14] when passing by a place believed to be inhabited by adiwata.[14][43]
15th centurybulul with apamahan (ceremonial bowl) in theLouvre Museum
Ancestor spirits were usually represented by carved figures. These were known astaotao ("little human", alsotaotaohan,latawo,tinatao, ortatao),[note 15]bata-bata ("little child"),ladaw ("image" or "likeness"; alsolaraw,ladawang,lagdong, orlarawan), orlikha ("creation"; alsolikhak) in most of the Philippines. Other names includebulul (alsobulol orbul-ul) among theIfugao;tinagtaggu (alsotinattaggu) among theKankanaey and Tuwali Ifugao;[note 16]lablabbon among theItneg;[48]manaug among theLumad; andtagno amongBicolanos.[1][4][14][36][49][50] Among Tagalogs,taotao were also sometimes referred to aslambana ("altar" or "sacred place"),[note 17] after the location in which they are usually kept.[14][50]
Taotao were usually austere roughly-carved figures made from wood, stone, or ivory. Sometaoatao encountered by the Spanish were made from precious metals or ornamented with gold and jewelry, but these were very rare.[1][51]Taotao were almost always depicted in thesquatting position with the arms crossed over the knees, which is reminiscent of thefetal position, the everyday conversing posture, and the position bodies are arranged during death among Ancient Filipinos. Some figures, however, are depicted standing or doing everyday activities like dancing, pounding rice, or nursing infants.[52][53]
Mosttaotao represent an actual deceased person, usually carved by the community upon their funeral. As such, there can be hundreds oftaotao in a single village, some of them centuries old.[53][54]
Salako (left) andpalaan (right) ceremonial altars among theItneg people (1922)[29]
In very rare cases,diwata can be depicted astaotao inanthropomorphic form, aschimeras orlegendary creatures, or asanimals.[14][53] These include a special class of figures calledhipag among the Igorot which depict war deities, as well askinabigat (carved houseposts) andhogang (carvedtree fern posts used as boundary markers and as wards against harm).[53] As a rule, however,diwata are not usually depicted astaotao or by any man-made representations.[4]
Taotao were not intrinsically sacred. They were representations of the spirits, not the actual spirits themselves. They only became sacred during their use in apag-anito ritual. Without the spirit they represent, they are treated as mundane carved pieces of wood or sculpted stone. The anonymous author of the 1572Relación de la conquista de la isla de Luzón describespag-anito rituals of the Tagalog people as such:[55]
When anychief is ill, he invites his kindred and orders a great meal to be prepared, consisting of fish, meat, and wine. When the guests are all assembled and the feast set forth in a few plates on the ground inside the house, they seat themselves also on the ground to eat. In the midst of the feast (calledmanganito or baylán in their tongue), they put the idol calledBatala and certain aged women who are considered as priestesses, and some aged Indians—neither more nor less. They offer the idol some of the food which they are eating, and call upon him in their tongue, praying to him for the health of the sick man for whom the feast is held. The natives of these islands have no altars nor temples whatsoever. This manganito, or drunken revel, to give it a better name, usually lasts seven or eight days; and when it is finished they take the idols and put them in the corners of the house, and keep them there without showing them any reverence.
Regardless, very oldtaotao handed down through generations are prized as family heirlooms. Among the Igorot, pieces oftaotao may also be chipped off and boiled into a medicinal tea.[53]
Taotao were commonly kept in corners or small shelves inside houses or granaries. Spanish missionaries recorded thattaotao were present in every Filipino household, no matter how poor.[1][4][49][50]
When Spanish missionaries arrived in the Philippines, the word "anito" came to be associated with these physical representations of spirits that featured prominently inpag-anito rituals. During theAmerican rule of the Philippines (1898–1946), the meaning of theSpanish wordidolo ("a thing worshiped") was further conflated with the English word "idol". Thus in themodern Filipino language,anito has come to refer almost exclusively to the carvedtaotao figures, instead of the actual spirits themselves.[1][56]
Ancient Filipinos and Filipinos who continue to adhere to theIndigenous Philippine folk religions generally do not have so-called "temples" of worship under the context known to foreign cultures.[1][57][58] However, they do have sacredshrines, which are also called asspirit houses.[1] They can range in size from small roofed platforms, to structures similar to a small house (but with no walls), to shrines that look similar topagodas, especially in the south where earlymosques were also modeled in the same way.[59] These shrines were known in various indigenous terms, which depend on the ethnic group association.[note 18] They can also be used as places to storetaotao and caskets of ancestors. Among Bicolanos,taotao were also kept inside sacred caves calledmoog.[1][60][61][62]
During certain ceremonies,anito are venerated through temporary altars near sacred places. These were calledlatangan orlantayan in Visayan anddambana orlambana in Tagalog.[note 19] These bamboo orrattan altars are identical in basic construction throughout most of the Philippines. They were either small roof-less platforms or standing poles split at the tip (similar to atiki torch). They held halved coconut shells, metal plates, ormartaban jars as receptacles for offerings.Taotao may sometimes also be placed on these platforms.[1][36]
Other types of sacred places or objects of worship ofdiwata include the material manifestation of their realms. The most widely venerated werebalete trees (also callednonok,nunuk,nonoc, etc.) andanthills ortermite mounds (punso). Other examples include mountains, waterfalls, tree groves, reefs, and caves.[1][4][14][63][64]
Some animals likecrocodiles, snakes,monitor lizards,tokay geckos, and various birds were also venerated as servants or manifestations ofdiwata, or as powerful spirits themselves. These include legendary creatures like the dragon or serpentBakunawa, the giant birdMinokawa of the Bagobo, and the colorfulSarimanok of the Maranao.[1][4][14][63][44]
Certain animals (in addition to omen birds) are also believed to be manifestations of spirits, and there weretaboos when interacting with them or speaking about them as their connections to the spirit world make them innately dangerous. This belief was universal among earlyAustronesian animism, existing not only in the Philippines, but also among theTaiwanese indigenous peoples, other Islander Southeast Asians, andPacific Islanders. When spoken of, these spirit creatures are marked with a prefix, reconstructed asproto-Austronesian *qali- or *kali-,[note 21] which still survivefossilized in modern languages in Austronesian cultures, though the beliefs may have long been forgotten. Only very specific creatures were regarded in this way, the most prominent beingbutterflies which are still widely associated with ghosts. The animals in this category include the following:[66][67]
The prefix also extended to terms for actual spirits, like Tagalogkaluluwa ("soul"), IsnegKalapataw (atotemic spirit of birds), Kankanaeyaladunáxan (a spirit who makes babies cry at night to disturb their parents' sleep), and Maranaoalimekat (a water spirit); as well as natural phenomena and other concepts believed to have direct ties to the spirit world, likeechoes (e.g.Tagalogalingawngaw),whirlpools ortornadoes (e.g. Tagalogalimpuyó and Bikolalipúros), storms (e.g. Kankanaeyalimbudádbud), shadows (e.g. Kankanaeyalalangaw), [clouds of] dust (e.g. Tagalogalikabok andWestern Bukidnon Manoboeliyavuk), sun or moonhalos (e.g. Isnegalibongbóng), unease or restlessness (e.g. Tagalogalisuwag), rustling of the grass or wind (e.g. Ilocanoaringgunay and Kankanaeyalikadong),hair whorls (e.g. Cebuanoalimpulu and Hanunóoaripudwan), mountain summits (e.g. Bikolalituktok and Aklanonalipungto), dizziness or fainting (e.g. Cebuanoalipulung, Pangasinanalimoreng, and Kankanaeyalitengteng), confusion or forgetting (e.g. Kapampangankalingwan and Bikolaliwalas), thick smoke or steam (e.g. Ilocanoalingasaw and Tagalogalimuóm), loud [annoying] noises (e.g. Cebuanoalingasaw andIfugaoalidogdog), thepupil of the eye (e.g. Tagalogalikmata andHiligaynonkalimutaw), and so on.[66]
A 1922 photograph of anItneg shaman making an offering to anapdel, a guardiananito of her village.Apdel are believed to reside in the water-worn stones known aspinaing.[29]
Anitism was not a religion about worship. Aside from good ancestor spirits and the few benevolentdiwata, mostanito were feared, not venerated. To an ordinary person,diwata were regarded as dangerous beings to be avoided or appeased. When interaction was necessary, they performed a ritual known aspag-anito (alsomag-anito oranitohan). These are usually directed at ancestor spirits. When thepag-anito ceremony is for adiwata, the ritual is known aspagdiwata (alsomagdiwata ordiwatahan).[1][4]
Minorpag-anito rituals like praying for better weather or banishing minor ill luck can be performed by any householder. However, majorpag-anito rituals required the services of the communityshaman (Visayanbabaylan orbaylan; Tagalogkatalonan ormanganito).[1][note 22]
These shamans were believed to have been "chosen" by a specificdiwata who become theirspirit guides.[note 23] This was presumed to happen after they pass the initiation rites of an older shaman they were apprenticed to (usually a relative). In some cases, some shamans acquire their status after they recover from a serious illness or a bout of insanity.[1][32][41][33][47][68] In most Filipino ethnic groups, shamans were almost always female. The few males who gain shaman status were usuallyasog orbayok,[note 24] feminized men.[1][36][33][68]
Itneg people launching spirit boats (taltalabong) bearing offerings foranito (1922)
Majorpag-anito rituals are centered around aséance. Because of their special relationship with their companion spirits, shamans can act asmediums for otheranito, allowing spirits to temporarily possess their bodies. This possession happens after the shaman goes into a trance-like state. This allows the spirit to communicate verbally with the participants as well as physically act out events in the spirit world. At the moment of possession, shamans display a change in behavior and voice. They can sometimes go into seizures and become violent enough that restraints are required. The ritual ends when the spirit leaves and the shaman is awakened.[1]
Spirits were invited into the ritual through offerings and sacrifices during and after the ceremonies. These depended on what spirit was being summoned, but offerings are usually a small portion of the harvests, cooked food, wine, gold ornaments, andbetel nut. Blood from an animal was also usually part of the offerings, poured directly on thetaotao or in a bowl before them. These commonly come from chickens or pigs, but can also be fromcarabaos or dogs.[1][4] Salt and spices are usually avoided, as they are believed to be distasteful toanito.[33] There is no record ofhuman sacrifices being offered toanito during the Spanish period of the Philippines,[1][49][44] except among theBagobo people in southernMindanao where it was prevalent until the early 20th century.[69][70][note 25]
Another commonpag-anito ritual throughout most of the Philippine ethnic groups involves the use of spirit boats. These were usually miniature boats laden with offerings set adrift from riverbanks and shorelines.[4][13][29]
Pag-anito can be conducted on its own or in conjunction with other rituals and celebrations. They can be personal or family rituals or seasonal community events. They can vary considerably between different ethnic groups. The most commonpag-anito were entreaties for bountiful harvests, cures for illnesses, victory in battle, prayers for the dead, or blessings.[1][36]
Different ethnic groups had differentdiwata pantheons and rituals associated with them, though sometimes deities are shared in neighboring ethnic groups. Moreover, different communities also each have their own local patrondiwata.[4][note 26]
Historical accounts of anito in Spanish records include the following:
A figurine of Lumawig, a cultural hero and the supreme being in the pantheon of theBontoc people
"Most of the Indians are heathens...They believe in their ancestors, and when about to embark upon some enterprise commend themselves to these, asking them for aid." – Francisco de Sande,Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas (1576)
"Which treats of the rites and ceremonies observed by the Moros in the vicinity of Manilla, and of their social conditions. The god Batala. According to the religion formerly observed by these Moros, they worshiped a deity called among them Batala, which properly means “God.” They said that they adored this Batala because he was the Lord of all, and had created human beings and villages. They said that this Batala had many agents under him, whom he sent to this world to produce, in behalf of men, what is yielded here. These beings were called anitos, and each anito had a special office. Some of them were for the fields, and some for those who journey by sea; some for those who went to war, and some for diseases. Each anito was therefore named for his office; there was, for instance, the anito of the fields, and the anito of the rain. To these anitos the people offered sacrifices, when they desired anything—to each one according to his office. The mode of sacrifice was like that of the Pintados. They summoned a catalonan, which is the same as the vaylan among the Pintados, that is, a priest. He offered the sacrifice, requesting from the anito whatever the people desired him to ask, and heaping up great quantities of rice, meat, and fish. His invocations lasted until the demon entered his body, when the catalonan fell into a swoon, foaming at the mouth. The Indians sang, drank, and feasted until the catalonan came to himself, and told them the answer that the anito had given to him. If the sacrifice was in behalf of a sick person, they offered many golden chains and ornaments, saying that they were paying a ransom for the sick person's health. This invocation of the anito continued as long as the sickness lasted."
"When the natives were asked why the sacrifices were offered to the anito, and not to the Batala, they answered that the Batala was a great lord, and no one could speak to him. He lived in the sky; but the anito, who was of such a nature that he came down here to talk with men, was to the Batala as a minister, and interceded for them. In some places and especially in the mountain districts, when the father, mother, or other relative dies, the people unite in making a small wooden idol, and preserve it. Accordingly there is a house which contains one hundred or two hundred of these idols. These images also are called anitos; for they say that when people die, they go to serve the Batala. Therefore they make sacrifices to these anitos, offering them food, wine, and gold ornaments; and request them to be intercessors for them before the Batala, whom they regard as God." – Miguel de Loarca,Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas (1582)
Small ornate pottery houses used as offerings for rice anito among theItneg people
"They held the cayman in the utmost veneration; and, whenever they made any statement about it, when they descried it in the water, they called it Nono, which means "grandfather." They softly and tenderly besought it not to harm them; and to this end offered it a part of what they carried in their boats, casting the offering into the water. There was no old tree to which they did not attribute divinity; and it was a sacrilege to cut such a tree for any purpose. What more did they adore? the very stones, cliffs, and reefs, and the headlands of the shores of the sea or the rivers; and they made some offering when they passed by these, going to the stone or rock, and placing the offering upon it. I saw many times in the river of Manila a rock which for many years was an idol of that wretched people... While sailing along the island of Panai I beheld on the promontory called Nasso, near Potol, plates and other pieces of earthenware, laid upon a rock, the offering of voyagers. In the island of Mindanao between La Canela and the river [i.e., Rio Grande], a great promontory projects from a rugged and steep coast; always at these points there is a heavy sea, making it both difficult and dangerous to double them. When passing by this headland, the natives, as it was so steep, offered their arrows, discharging them with such force that they penetrated the rock itself. This they did as a sacrifice, that a safe passage might be accorded them." – Fr. Pedro Chirino,Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (1604)
"They also adored private idols, which each one inherited from his ancestors. The Visayans called them divata, and the Tagálogs anito. Of those idols some had jurisdiction over the mountains and open country, and permission was asked from them to go thither. Others had jurisdiction over the sowed fields, and the fields were commended to them so that they might prove fruitful; and besides the sacrifices they placed articles of food in the fields for the anitos to eat, in order to place them under greater obligations. There was an anito of the sea, to whom they commended their fisheries and navigations; an anito of the house, whose favor they implored whenever an infant was born, and when it was suckled and the breast offered to it. They placed their ancestors, the invocation of whom was the first thing in all their work and dangers, among these anitos. In memory of their ancestors they kept certain very small and very badly made idols of stone, wood, gold, or ivory, called licha or laravan. Among their gods they reckoned also all those who perished by the sword, or who were devoured by crocodiles, as well as those killed by lightning. They thought that the souls of such immediately ascended to the blest abode by means of the rainbow, called by them balañgao. Generally, whoever could succeed in it attributed divinity to his aged father at his death. The aged themselves died in that presumptuous delusion, and during their sickness and at their death guided all their actions with what they imagined a divine gravity and manner. Consequently, they chose as the place for their grave some assigned spot, like one old man who lived on the seacoast between Dulac and Abuyog, which is in the island of Leyte. He ordered himself placed there in his coffin (as was done) in a house standing alone and distant from the settlement, in order that he might be recognized as a god of navigators, who were to commend themselves to him. Another had himself buried in certain lands in the mountains of Antipolo, and through reverence to him no one dared to cultivate those lands (for they feared that he who should do so would die), until an evangelical minister removed that fear from them, and now they cultivate them without harm or fear." – Fr. Francisco Colin,Labor Evangelica (1663)
The modern Filipino understanding of diwata encompasses meanings such as muse, fairy, nymph, dryad, or even deity (god or goddess).[71][72] The word is thought to originate from the Sanskrit word devata (deity)[73]. Diwatas in folklore and mythology are often associated and or synchronized withfairies called lambana.[74][75][76] The term Anito—widely understood today as referring to wooden idols,[77] ancestor spirits or spirits of the dead—may have derived from the proto-Malayo-Polynesian qanitu and proto-Austronesian qanicu, both of which mean ancestral spirits.[78] spirit of the dead,evil spirits and the woodenidols that represent them.[79][80][81]
Amaya, a historical television series about the precolonial Philippines. It depictsdiwata as goddesses.[84]
Halimaw,(lit. 'Monster')horroranthologyFilipino film directed byMario O’Hara ‘Halimaw sa Banga’ features an evil anito. An ancient witch gets trapped and killed in an antique jar. Turns into a monster, an evil anito after her death and, now, she kills anyone who looks into the jar.[85][86][87]
One Day Isang Araw, fantasy anthology series episode titled "Ang Huling Diwata" (The last fairy) about a fairy as deity of a pond[90][91]
Diwata (1987), a movie directed by Tata Esteban and written by Rei Nicandro showed the mythical life of the deities. Actress Olga Miranda played the main role, together with the other cast Lala Montelibano, Dick Israel and George Estregan.[92]
Encantadia andMulawin, two television series (with film adaptations) in a shared universe depicts diwatas as a race of faries and supernatural being living in Encantadia, a dimension beyond the human world.[93][94]
Faraway (2014), an independent film focuses on a woman and her quest to find the Diwata tribe.[95]
Indio, a television series with a protagonist that is the son of a mortal man and adiwata woman.[96]
One of the abilities of the character Titania (added on August 19, 2016) inWarframe is a sword known asdiwata.[102][103]
Project Tadhana, atabletop role-playing game released in 2017 features Diwata as one of its playable races (orlahi) together with Engkanto, Tikbalang, Aswang, and Tao.[104]
Makia:Tales of the Forest, avisual novel released in 2020
“Diwata” by National Artist for SculptureGuillermo Tolentino is the winged fairy made from reinforced concrete located in the National Fine Arts Collection (NFAC) of theNational Museum.[107]
One of the main characters from the playSpeech & Debate written byStephen Karam is a woman with Filipino ancestry named Diwata.
Marvel Comics has introduced the "Diwatas" as a pantheon of gods similar to theAsgardians andOlympians. These Diwatas include Aman Sinaya, Amihan, Anitun, Apo Laki, Aswang, Bathala, Mayari and Tala.[108]
^Among most Filipino ethnic groups, a person is believed to be composed of at least two souls – the breath of life, will, or awareness (ginhawa orhininga, which stays with the living body) and theastral soul (kalag orkaluluwa, which can travel to the spirit world). The concept ofsoul dualism is sometimes referred to as "twin souls" or "double souls" and is a common belief in Austronesian cultures and othershamanistic cultures. Other names for the life soul includenyawa ornyawalihan (Tausug),niyawa (Maranao),niyawa-lihan (Jama Mapun),lennawa (Batad Ifugao), andnawa (T'boli). Other names for the astral soul includekaluha,dungan (Visayan);kalag (Bicol);kaduwa (Isneg),ab-abiik (Kankanaey),karurua (Ilocano),ikaruruwa (Ibanag),karaduwa (Mangyan),kiyaraluwa (Tagbanwa),makatu (Bukidnon), andkadengan-dengan orgimokud (Manobo). (Scott, 1994; Tan, 2008; Mercado, 1991; Talavera, 2014) Most of the terms for the astral soul literally translate to "twin" or "double", from PAN *duSa, "two". (Yu, 2000; Blust, 2010)
^After Spanish contact, various spirit worlds were syncretized into the Christian concept of heaven and hell in dictionaries and Bible translations. They struggled in determining which terminology to use because of the absence of theheaven and hell dichotomy in the Filipino concept of the spirit world. Spanish missionaries and European authors usually equated heaven withmaca andcalualhatian; and hell withcasan (alsocasanaan,casauaan, orcatanaan; sometimes misread askasamaan). However, in theBoxer Codexmaca andcasan were synonyms for the Visayan and Tagalogunderworlds. The 1754 version ofVocabulario de la lengua tagala usedcasanaan for both heaven and hell; withcasanaan nang hirap as hell, andcasanaan nang tova as heaven.Calualhatian (modern spelling:kaluwalhatian) was simply a region in the Tagalog spirit world that souls can enter by crossing a torrential river on a narrow plank. (Rath, 2013)
^Alsomua,mamaw,mamanhig,pamahoy,mamamahoy (McCoy, 1982); latermulto. from Spanishmuerto, "dead person" (Tan, 2008)
^Tagalogs differentiated between Diwata, the universal supreme being, and life creatorBathala, the supreme deity exclusive to them (Hislop, 1971)
^The most widespread names for these spirits in various Philippine ethnic groups arediwata oranito. Other names ofdiwata or specific types ofdiwata includefieu awas,kahoynon (B'laan);mahomanay,tahamaling (Bagobo);panya'en (Batak);tawong lipod,magindara (Bikol);magtitima,tawo sa talonan (Bukidnon);aled (Gaddang);annani (Ibanag);bakayauwan,monduntug,palasekan,pili,pinading (Ifugao);mangmangkit,katataoan/katawtaw-an,kibaan,litao (Ilocano);apdel,sasailo (Itneg);tumungaw (Kankana-ey);laman labuad,manglilili (Kapampangan);kama-kama/kamakaon (Karay-a);tuglinsau,tagbusau,mandangum (Mandaya);andagaw (Mangyan);tawagenen,manaog (Manobo);karibang (Maranao);kaybaan (Pangasinan);kamanan-daplak (Sambal);dayamdam,piritay (Tagalog);tawo sa talonan (Tagbanwa);lewenri,bawa,katao/kataw,tumawo/tamawo,tawong lupa (Visayan); andguban-on,digkusanon,dalaketnon (Waray).
^With strong parallels to human-like beings likeelves andaos sí, as well as diminutive human-like beings likebrownies andpixies. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
^Not to be confused with theTagbanwa andMamanwa ethnic groups, all derived fromPAN*banua, "home" or "homeland". In modern Filipino languages,banwa has been supplanted by Spanishlugar, thustaglugar is used in place oftagabanwa (Hislop, 1971; Tan, 2008).
^Diwata can cause harm by "eating" (smelling) the "vital force" or "breath" (ginhawa) of human beings. They are also said to be annoyed by perfume, as well as salt and spices. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
^Fromsintabi, "to respectfully ask permission" or "to give due respect", cf. "excuse me"
^InIlocano, the traditional phrase is "bari bari, apo", with the same meaning (Tan, 2008)
^From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian*tau, ultimately fromProto-Austronesian*Cau, "human" or "person"; compare withTorajatau tau statues
^The termlambana was later syncretized withfairies, commonly depicted as tiny winged beings in modern illustrations, andtambara,tigyama, orbalekat (Bagobo) The termlambana was later syncretized withfairies, commonly depicted as tiny winged beings in many illustrations a homonym for the alternate termdambana has come to mean "shrine" or "chapel" in modern Tagalog
^Known asmagdantang in Visayan andulango orsimbahan in Tagalog. Among theItneg, shrines are knowntangpap,pangkew, oralalot (for various small roofed altars); andbalaua orkalangan (for larger structures). InMindanao, shrines are known among theSubanen asmaligai; among theTeduray astenin (only entered by shamans); and among theBagobo asbuis (for those built near roads and villages) andparabunnian (for those built near rice fields).(Kroeber, 1918)
^Limokon in most of Visayas and among theLumad; alsoalmúgan (Blaan),alimúkun (Cebuano),alimúkeng (Ilocano);limoken (Maranao);muhen (T'boli);lemuguen (Teduray); andlimukun (Subanen)
^Asog is the term used for transvestite male shamans in most of the Visayas and in theBicol Region. In the rest of Luzon, they are known asbayok (bayoc),bayog, orbayogin (bayoguin orbayoquin). Notably among theSambal, the highest-ranking shaman was abayok. They are also known aslabia among theSubanen, though they were not necessarily shamans (Kroeber, 1918). There are also similar trans women shamans among theDayak people of Borneo (Baldick, 2013). Also seeBakla
^Some anthropologists consider theheadhunting traditions of theIgorot as a form of human sacrifice. In the funeral rites for celebrated warriors or nobles among Visayans and Tagalogs, favoriteslaves may also sometimes be executed and buried (hogot) to accompany the deceased into the spirit world (Scott, 1994; Benedict, 1916)
^In modern Christianized Filipinos, this practice was transferred unto community patron saints andreligious icons, which are often celebrated and worshiped in a very similar way (Hislop, 1971), cf.Ati-Atihan,Obando Fertility Rites
^Leberecht Funk (2014). "Entanglements between Tao People and Anito on Lanyu Island, Taiwan". In Y. Musharbash & G.H. Presterudstuen (ed.).Monster Anthropology in Australasia and Beyond. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 143–159.doi:10.1057/9781137448651_9.ISBN9781137448651.
^Salvador-Amores, Analyn (June 2011). "Batok (Traditional Tattoos) in Diaspora: The Reinvention of a Globally Mediated Kalinga Identity".South East Asia Research.19 (2):293–318.doi:10.5367/sear.2011.0045.S2CID146925862.
^Alvina, C.S. (2001). "Colors and patterns of dreams". In Oshima, Neal M.; Paterno, Maria Elena (eds.).Dreamweavers. Makati City, Philippines: Bookmark. pp. 46–58.ISBN9715694071.
^Rodney C. Jubilado; Hanafi Hussin & Maria Khristina Manueli (2011). "The Sama-Bajaus of Sulu-Sulawesi Seas: perspectives from linguistics and culture".Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.15 (1):83–95.
^Robert B. Fox (2013)."Pagdiwata Ritual"(PDF). In Jesus T. Peralta (ed.).Pinagmulan: Enumeration from the Philippine Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage. National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), Republic of the Philippines & International Information and Networking Centre for Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region under the auspices of UNESCO. pp. 167–171. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on July 10, 2015. RetrievedJuly 5, 2018.
^abcAlfred W. McCoy (1982). "Baylan: animist religion and Philippine peasant ideology".Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society.10 (3):141–194.JSTOR29791761.
^Blair, Emma Helen;Robertson, James Alexander, eds. (1903).Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon. The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 3. Ohio, Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company. p. 145.
^Stephen K. Hislop (1971). "Anitism: a survey of religious beliefs native to the Philippines" (PDF). Asian Studies. 9 (2): 144–156
^Ferdinand Blumentritt (1894). "Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der bei den philippinischen Eingeborenen üblichen Eigennamen, welche auf Religion, Opfer und priesterliche Titel und Amtsverrichtungen sich beziehen. (Fortsetzung.)". Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 8. Orientalisches Institut, Universität Wien. p. 147.
^Madale, N. T. (2003). In Focus: A Look at Philippine Mosques. National Commission for Culture and the Arts.
^A. L. Kroeber (1918). "The History of Philippine Civilization as Reflected in Religious Nomenclature". Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. XXI (Part II): 35–37.
^Cole, Fay-Cooper; Gale, Albert (1922). "The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe". Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series. 14 (2): 235–493
^Gregorio F. Zaide (2017). "Filipinos Before the Spanish Conquest Possessed a Well-Ordered and Well-Thought-Out Religion". In Tanya Storch (ed.). Religions and Missionaries around the Pacific, 1500–1900. The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, 1500–1900, Volume 17. Routledge.ISBN9781351904780.
^abTeodoro A. Agoncillo & Oscar M. Alfonso (1969).History of the Filipino People. Malaya Books. p. 42.
^Daniélou, Alain (1991).The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series. Rochester: Inner Traditions International, Limited.ISBN978-0-89281-354-4.
^Sánchez Velasco, Ana Rosa (January 22, 2013). "Estudio de caso. Taller de arteterapia con grupo de mujeres en el CEPI Hispano-Marroquí".Arteterapia. Papeles de arteterapia y educación artística para la inclusión social.7.doi:10.5209/rev_arte.2012.v7.40768.ISSN1988-8309.
^Zialcita, Fernando N. (October 28, 2020). "Gilda Cordero-Fernando, 1932–2020".Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints.68 (3).doi:10.13185/2244-1638.1070.ISSN2244-1638.
^"DIWATA-2: Ready to Launch into Space".Philippine Council for Industry, Energy, and Emerging Technology Research and Development (DOST-PCIEERD). October 25, 2018. RetrievedNovember 7, 2020.
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