A number of royal genealogies of theAnglo-Saxon kingdoms, collectively referred to as theAnglo-Saxon royal genealogies, have been preserved in a manuscript tradition based in the 8th to 10th centuries.

The genealogies trace the succession of the early Anglo-Saxon kings, back to the semi-legendary kings of theAnglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, notably named asHengist and Horsa inBede'sHistoria ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, and further to legendary kings and heroes of the pre-migration period, usually including aneponymous ancestor of the respectivelineage and converging onWoden. In their fully elaborated forms as preserved in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicles and theTextus Roffensis, they continue the pedigrees back to the biblical patriarchsNoah andAdam. They also served as the basis for pedigrees that would be developed in 13th century Iceland for the Scandinavian royalty.

The Anglo-Saxons, uniquely among the earlyGermanic peoples, preserved royal genealogies.^[1] The earliest source for these genealogies isBede, who in hisHistoria ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (completed in or before 731^[2]) said of the founders of theKingdom of Kent:

The two first commanders are said to have beenHengest and Horsa ... They were the sons of Victgilsus, whose father wasVecta, son ofWoden; from whose stock the royal race of many provinces deduce their original.^[3]

Bede similarly provides ancestry for the kings of theEast Angles.^[4]

AnAnglian collection of royal genealogies also survives, the earliest version (sometimes called Vespasian or simply V) containing a list of bishops that ends in the year 812. This collection provides pedigrees for the kings ofDeira,Bernicia,Mercia,Lindsey, Kent and East Anglia, tracing each of these dynasties fromWoden, who is made the son of an otherwise unknown Frealaf.^[5] The same pedigrees, in both text and tabular form, are included in some copies of theHistoria Brittonum, an older body of tradition compiled or significantly retouched byNennius in the early 9th century. These apparently share a common late-8th century source with the Anglian collection.^[6] Two other manuscripts from the 10th century (called CCCC and Tiberius, or simply C and T) also preserve the Anglian collection, but include an addition: a pedigree for KingIne of Wessex that traces his ancestry fromCerdic, the semi-legendary founder of the Wessex state, and hence from Woden.^[7] This addition probably reflects the growing influence of Wessex underEcgbert, whose family claimed descent from a brother of Ine.^[8]

Pedigrees are also preserved in several regnal lists dating from the reign ofÆthelwulf and later but seemingly based on a late-8th or early 9th century source or sources.^[9] Finally, later interpolations (which were added by 892) to bothAsser'sVita Ælfredi regis Angul Saxonum and theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle preserve Wessex pedigrees extended beyond Cerdic and Woden toAdam.^[10]

John of Worcester would copy these pedigrees into hisChronicon ex chronicis, and the 9th-century Anglo-Saxon genealogical tradition also served as a source for the IcelandicLangfeðgatal and was used bySnorri Sturluson for his 13th centuryPrologue to the Prose Edda.

The majority of the surviving pedigrees trace the families of Anglo-Saxon royalty toWoden. Theeuhemerizing treatment of Woden as the common ancestor of the royal houses is presumably a "late innovation" within the genealogical tradition which developed in the wake of theChristianization of the Anglo-Saxons.Kenneth Sisam has argued that the Wessex pedigree was co-opted from that of Bernicia, and David Dumville has reached a similar conclusion with regard to that of Kent, deriving it from the pedigree of the kings ofDeira.

When looking at pedigree sources outside of the Anglian collection, one surviving pedigree for thekings of Essex in a similar fashion traces the family fromSeaxneat. In later pedigrees, this too has been linked to Wōden by making Seaxnēat his son. Dumville has suggested that these modified pedigrees linking to Wōden were creations intended to express their contemporary politics, a representation in genealogical form of the Anglian hegemony over all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

The derivation of a claim ofkingship from descent from a god may be rooted in ancientGermanic paganism.InAnglo-Saxon England afterChristianization, this tradition appears to have beeneuhemerized to kingship of any of the realms of theHeptarchy being conditional on descent from Woden.^[11]

Woden is made father ofWecta, Beldeg, Wihtgils andWihtlaeg^[12] who are given as ancestors of theKings of Kent,Deira,Wessex,Bernicia,Mercia andEast Anglia, as well as the independent founder turned son,Seaxnēat, the Essex ancestor. These lineages having thus been made to converge, the portion of the pedigree before Woden was then subjected to several successive rounds of extension, and also the interpolation of mythical heroes and other modifications, producing a final genealogy that traced to theBiblical patriarchs andAdam.^[13]

Bede relates thatHengest and Horsa, semi-legendary founders of theKentish royal family, were sons of Wihtgils (Victgilsi), [son of Witta (Vitti)], son ofWecta (Vecta), son of Woden. Witta is omitted from some manuscripts, but his name appears as part of the same pedigree repeated in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle andHistoria Brittonum. The Anglian Collection gives a similar pedigree for Hengest, with Wecta appearing as Wægdæg, and the names Witta and Wihtgils exchanging places, with a similar pedigree being given bySnorri Sturluson in his much laterPrologue to the Prose Edda, where Wægdæg, calledVegdagr son of Óðinn, is made a ruler in East Saxony. Grimm suggested that a shared first element of these namesWicg-, representingOld Saxonwigg andOld Norsevigg, and reflects, like the names Hengest and Horsa, the horsetotem of the Kentish dynasty.^[14] From Hengest's son Eoric, calledOisc, comes the name of the dynasty, the Oiscingas, and he is followed as king byOcta,Eormenric, and the well-documentedÆthelberht of Kent. The Anglian Collection places Octa (as Ocga) before Oisc (Oese).

The genealogy given for thekings of Deira in both theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Anglian Collection also traces throughWægdæg, followed bySiggar andSwæbdæg. TheProse Edda also gives these names, asSigarr andSvebdeg aliasSvipdagr, but places them a generation farther down the Kent pedigree, as son and grandson of Wihtgils. Though Sisam rejected the linguistic identity of Bede'sWecta withWægdæg, the Anglian Collection andProse Edda place Wægdæg in the ancestry of both lines and Dumville suggests this common pedigree origin reflected the political alliance of Kent with Deira coincident with the marriage ofEdwin of Deira withÆthelburh of Kent, which appears to have led to the grafting of the unrelatedJutish Kent dynasty onto a Deira pedigree belonging to anAnglian body of genealogical tradition.^[15]Historia Brittonum connects the Deira line to a different branch of Woden's descendants, showingSiggar to be son of Brond, son of Beldeg, a different son of Woden. This matches the lineage atop the Bernicia pedigree in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle and that of Wessex in the Anglian Collection. The transfer of the Deira line from kinship with Kent royal line to that of Bernicia was perhaps meant to mirror the political union that joined Deira and Bernicia into the kingdom of Northumbria.

TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle, Anglian Collection andHistoria Brittonum all give descent from Siggar/Sigegar toÆlla, the first historically-documented king ofDeira, and the latter's sonEdwin, who first joined Deira with neighboringBernicia into what would become theKingdom of Northumbria, an accomplishmentHistoria Brittonum attributes to his ancestor Soemil. While clearly sharing a common root, the three pedigrees differ somewhat in the precise details. TheChronicle pedigree apparently dropped a generation. That ofHistoria Brittonum has two differences. It lacks two early generations, a likely scribal error that resulted from a jump between the similar names Siggar and Siggeot, a similar gap appearing in the later pedigree given by chroniclerHenry of Huntingdon, whoseHistoria Anglorum otherwise faithfully follows theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle pedigree, but here jumps directly from 'Sigegeat' to Siggar's father,Wepdeg (Wægdæg). There is also a substitution later in the pedigree, whereHistoria Brittonum replaces the name Westorfalcna with Sguerthing, apparently theSwerting ofBeowulf, although its -ing ending ledJohn of Worcester, writing in the 12th centuryChronicon ex chronicis, to interpret the name as an Anglo-Saxonpatronymic and interpose the name Swerta as Seomil's father into a pedigree otherwise matching that of the Anglian Collection.^[16] The replaced name,Wester-falcna (west falcon) along with the earlierSæ-fugel (sea-fowl), were seen by Grimm as totemic bird names analogous to the horse names in the Kent pedigree.^[17]

The pedigree given thekings of Mercia traces their family fromWihtlæg, who is made son (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle), grandson (Anglian collection) or great-grandson (Historia Brittonum) of Woden. His descendants are frequently viewed as legendaryKings of the Angles, but as Wiglek, he is transformed into a king of Denmark, the rival of Amleth (Hamlet), in the 12th centuryGesta Danorum ("deeds of the Danes") ofSaxo Grammaticus, perhaps as a fusion bringing together the Mercian Wihtlæg with theWiglaf ofBeowulf.^[18] The next two generations of the Mercian pedigree, Wermund and Uffa, are likewise made Danish rulers by Saxo, as does his contemporarySven Aggesen'sBrevis Historia Regum Dacie, Wermund here being son of king Froðihin Frökni. The second of these, Uffa, asOffa of Angel, is known independently fromBeowulf,Widsith andVitae duorum Offarum ("The lives of the two Offas"). At this point the Danish pedigrees diverge from the Anglo-Saxon tradition, making him father of Danishking Dan.Beowulf makes Offa father of Eomer, while in the Anglo-Saxon genealogies he is Eomer's grandfather, via an intermediate named Angeltheow, Angelgeot, or perhaps Ongengeat (the Origon ofHistoria Brittonum being an apparent misreading ofOngon-^[19]). Eliason has suggested that this insertion derives from a byname of Eomer, according toBeowulf the son of a marriage between an Angel and a Geat,^[20] but the name may represent an attempt to interpolate the heroic Swedish kingOngenþeow who appears independently inBeowulf andWidsith and in turn is sometimes linked with the earliest historical Danish king,Ongendus, named inAlcuin's 8th-centuryVita Willibrordi archiepiscopi Traiectensis. Eomer, Offa's son or grandson, is then made father of Icel, the legendaryeponymous ancestor of theIcling dynasty that founded the Mercian state, except in the surviving version ofHistoria Brittonum, which skips over not only Icel but Cnebba, Cynwald, andCreoda, jumping straight toPybba, whose sonPenda is the first documented as king, and who along with his 12 brothers gave rise to multiple lines that would succeed to thethrone of Mercia through the end of the 8th century.

The ruling dynasty of East Anglia, theWuffingas, were named forWuffa, son ofWehha, who is made the ancestor of the historicalWuffingas dynasty, and given a pedigree fromWoden.^[21] Wehha appears asǷehh Ƿilhelming (Wehha Wilhelming - son of Wilhelm) in the Anglian Collection.^[22] According to the 9th-centuryHistory of the Britons, his father Guillem Guercha (the Wilhelm of the Anglian Collection pedigree) was the first king of the East Angles,^[23] but D. P. Kirby is among those historians who have concluded that Wehha was the founder of the Wuffingas line.^[24] From Wilhelm the pedigree is continued back through Hryþ, Hroðmund (a name otherwise only known fromBeowulf^{[citation needed]}), Trygil, Tyttman, Caser (LatinCaesar, i.e.Julius Caesar) to Woden. The placement ofCaesar within this pedigree perhaps defers to early traditions deriving Woden from 'Greekland'.^[25] TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle gives no pedigree for this dynasty.

While excluded from the original pedigree sources, two later copies of the Anglian collection from the 10th century (called CCCC and Tiberius, or simply C and T) include an addition: a pedigree for KingIne of Wessex that traces his ancestry fromCerdic, the semi-legendary founder of the Wessex state, and hence from Woden.^[7] This addition probably reflects the growing influence of Wessex underEcgbert, whose family claimed descent from a brother of Ine.^[8] This Anglian king-list seems to have been a source for theWest Saxon Genealogical Regnal List, an early version of which was itself a source for theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle but which took its surviving form during the reigns ofÆthelwulf or his sons.^[9][26] Finally, later interpolations (which were added by 892) to bothAsser'sVita Ælfredi regis Angul Saxonum and theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle preserve Wessex pedigrees extended beyond Cerdic and Woden toAdam.^[10] Scholars have long noted discrepancies in the Wessex pedigree tradition. The pedigree as it appears in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle is at odds with the earlier Anglian collection in that it contains four additional generations and consists of doublets which when expressed with patronymics would have resulted in the uniform triple alliteration that is common in Anglo-Saxon poetry, but that would have been difficult for a family to maintain over a number of generations and is unlike known Anglo-Saxon naming practices.^[27][28]

Further, when comparing theChronicle's pedigrees of Cerdic and ofIda of Bernicia several anomalies are evident. While the two peoples had no tradition of common origin, their pedigrees share the generations immediately after Woden, Bældæg whom Snorri equated with the GodBaldr, and Brand. One might expect Cerdic to be given descent from a different son of Woden, if not from a different god entirely such as theSaxon patron,Seaxnēat, who once headed the pedigree of theEssex kings before his relegation as another son of Woden. Likewise, while theChronicle places Ida's reign after Cerdic's death, the pedigrees do not reflect this difference in age.^[29][30]

The name Cerdic, moreover, may actually be an Anglicized form of theBrythonic nameCeredic and several of his successors also have names of possible Brythonic origin, indicating that the Wessex founders may not have been Germanic at all.^[31] All of these suggest that the pedigree may not be authentic.

The Wessex royal pedigree continued to puzzle historians until, in 1953, Anglo-Saxon scholar Kenneth Sisam presented an analysis that has since been almost universally accepted by historians. He noted similarities between the earlier versions of the Wessex pedigree and that of Ida. Those appearing in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and in the published transcript of Asser (the original having been lost in an 18th-century fire) are in agreement, but several earlier manuscript transcripts of Asser's work give, instead, the shorter pedigree of the later Anglian collection manuscripts, probably representing the original text of Asser and the earliest form of the Cerdic pedigree.^[32] Sisam speculated that the additional names arose through the insertion of a pair of Saxon heroes,Freawine andWig, into the existing pedigree, creating a second alliterative pair (afterBrand/Bældæg,Giwis/Wig, where the stress of "Giwis" is on the second syllable) and inviting further alliteration, the addition ofEsla to complete anElesa/Esla pair, and ofFriðgar to make aFreawine/Friðgar alliteration.^[33] Of these alliterative names (in a culture whose poetry depended upon alliteration rather than rhyme) only Esla is perhaps known elsewhere: British historians working before Sisam suggested that his name is that of Ansila, a legendary Goth ancestor or that he is Osla 'Bigknife' ofArthurian legend,^[34] an equivalency still followed by some Arthurian writers, although Osla is elsewhere identified withOcta of Kent.^[35] Elesa has also been linked to the Romano-Briton Elasius, the "chief of the region" met byGermanus of Auxerre.^[36]

Having concluded that the shorter form of the royal genealogy was the original, Sisam compared the names found in different versions of the Wessex and Northumbrian royal pedigrees, revealing a similarity between the Bernician pedigree found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and those given for Cerdic: rather than diverging several generations earlier they are seen to correspond until the generation immediately before Cerdic, with the exception of one substitution. "Giwis", seemingly a supposed eponymous ancestor of theGewisse (a name given to the early West Saxons) appears instead of a similarlyeponymous ancestor of the Bernicians (Old English,Beornice), Benoc in the Chronicle and (slightly rearranged in order) Beornic or Beornuc in other versions. This suggests that the Bernician pedigree was co-opted in a truncated form by Wessex historians, replacing one "founding father" with another.^[37][38][39]

Sisam concluded that at one time the Wessex royal pedigree went no earlier than Cerdic and that it was subsequently elaborated by borrowing the Bernician royal pedigree that went back to Woden, introducing the heroes Freawine and Wig and inserting additional names to provide alliterative couplets.^[37] Dumville concurred with this conclusion, and suggested that the Wessex pedigree was linked to that of Bernicia to reflect a 7th-century political alliance.^[40]

Ida is given as the first king ofBernicia. TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle indicates that Ida's reign began in 547, and records him as the son of Eoppa, grandson of Esa, and great-grandson of Ingui.^[41] Likewise, theHistoria Brittonum records him as the son of Eoppa, and calls him the first king ofBerneich orBernicia, but inserts an additional generation between Ida and its Ingui equivalent, Inguec, while the Anglian collection moves its version of this man several generations before, in the combined name form Ingibrand.^[42] Richard North suggests that the presence of this Ing- individual among the ancestors of Ida in the Bernician pedigree relates to theIngvaeones inGermania, referring to the seaboard tribes among which were theAngles who would later found Bernicia. He hypothesizes that Ingui, representing the same Germanic god as the NorseYngvi, originally was held to be founder of the Anglian royal families at a time predating the addition of the eponymous Beornuc and extension of the pedigree to Woden. The name Brand/Brond also appears at different positions in the pedigree, either as the entire name or part of a combined name, with Gech-/Weg- and Ingi- elements.^[38] One name, Angengeot/Angenwit, appearing in two of the Bernicia pedigrees also is present in that of Mercia. The name may have been added to reflect a political alliance between the two kingdoms.^[43]

Northumbria arose from the union of Bernicia with the kingdom ofDeira under Ida's grandsonÆthelfrith. The genealogies of the Anglo-Saxon kings attached to some manuscripts of theHistoria Brittonum give more information on Ida and his family; the text names Ida's "one queen" as Bearnoch and indicates that he had twelve sons. Several of these are named, and some of them are listed as kings.^[44] One of them,Theodric, is noted for fighting against a British coalition led byUrien Rheged and his sons.^[45]Some 18th- and 19th-century commentators, beginning withLewis Morris, associated Ida with the figure of Welsh tradition known as Flamdwyn ("Flame-bearer").^[46] This Flamdwyn was evidently an Anglo-Saxon leader opposed byUrien Rheged and his children, particularly his sonOwain, who slew him.^[47] However,Rachel Bromwich notes that such an identification has little to back it;^[47] other writers, such asThomas Stephens andWilliam Forbes Skene, identify Flamdwyn instead with Ida's sonTheodric, noting the passages in the genealogies discussing Theodric's battles with Urien and his sons.^[46]Ida's successor is given asGlappa, one of his sons, followed byAdda,Æthelric,Theodric,Frithuwald,Hussa, and finallyÆthelfrith (d. c. 616), the first Northumbrian monarch known to Bede.

A genealogy for Lindsey is also part of the collection. However, unlike the other kingdoms, the lack of surviving chronicle materials covering Lindsey deprive its pedigree of context. In his analysis of the pedigree,Frank Stenton pointed to three names as being informative. Cædbæd includes the British elementcad-, indicative of interaction between the two cultures in the early days of settlement. A second name, Biscop, is the Anglo-Saxon word forbishop, and suggests a time after conversion. Finally, Alfreið, the king to whom the document traces, is not definitively known elsewhere, but Stenton suggested identification with an Ealdfridrex who witnessed a confirmation byOffa of Mercia.^[48] However, Ealdfridrex is now interpreted to be an error for Offa's son Ecgfriðrex, anointed as King of Mercia during his father's lifetime, rather than the Lindsey ruler. Grimm sees in theBiscop Bedecing of the pedigree the same name form as that of the "Biscop Baducing" appearing inVita Sancti Wilfrithi.^[49]

For the southern realm of the East Saxons, a unique pedigree is preserved that does not derive the royal family from Wōden. This pedigree is thought to be independent of the Anglian collection, and ends withSeaxnēat ("companion of the Saxons", or simply knife-companion), matching the Saxnôt whom, along withWodan andThunaer, ninth-century Saxon converts to Christianity were made explicitly to renounce. Subsequently, Seaxnēat was turned into an additional son of Wōden, connecting the Essex royal pedigree to the others of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The first king,Æscwine of Essex, is placed seven generations below Seaxnēat in the pedigree.

The earliest surviving manuscript that extends prior toWoden, the Vespasian version of the Anglian collection, only gives one additional name, that of Woden's father, an otherwise unknown Frealeaf. However, in the case of the genealogy of the kings of Lindsey, it makes Frealeaf son of Friothulf, son of Finn, son of Godwulf, son of Geat. This appears to be a more recent addition, added after theHistoria Brittonum tabular genealogies were derived from the Anglian collection's precursor, and subsequently added to other lineages.^[50]
In the prose pedigree of Hengist inHistoria Brittonum,Godwulf, father ofFinn, was replaced by a variant ofFolcwald the father of legendaryFrisian heroFinn known fromBeowulf and theFinnesburg Fragment.^[51] Later versions do not follow this change: some add an additional name, making Friothwald the father of Woden, while others omit Friothulf.^[52] Grimm compares the various versions of the pedigree immediately prior to Woden and concludes that the original version was likely most similar to that of theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle, with Woden son ofFridho-wald, son ofFridho-lâf, son ofFridho-wulf.^[53]
The name at the head of this pedigree is that of another legendary Scandinavian,Geat, apparently the eponymous ancestor of theGeats and perhaps once a god.^[54] This individual has also been taken as corresponding toGapt, the head of the genealogy of theGoths as given byJordanes.^[b]None of the individuals between Woden and Geat, except possibly Finn, is known elsewhere. Sisam concludes, "Few will dissent from the general opinion that the ancestors of Woden were a fanciful development of Christian times."^[56]

Several medieval sources extend the pedigree prior to Geat to the legendary Scandinavian heroesSkjöldr andSceafa. These fall into three classes, the shortest being found in theLatin translation of theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle prepared byÆthelweard, himself a descendant of the royal family. His version makes Geat the son of Tetuua, son ofBeow, son of Scyld, son of Scef.^[57] The last three generations also appear inBeowulf in the pedigree ofHroðgar, but with the name of Beow expanded to that of the poem's hero.^[58]
The surviving manuscripts of theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle instead place several generations between Scyld and Sceaf. Asser gives a similar pedigree with some different name forms and one version of theChronicle has an obvious error removing the early part of the pedigree, but all these clearly represent a second pedigree tradition.^[59]
One of the later surviving manuscripts of the Anglian collection has dropped two of the names from this descent and this identifies it or a related manuscript as the source for the version of the pedigree that appears in the IcelandicLangfeðgatal and in Snorri'sProse Edda pedigree.^[60]
TheChronicle and Anglian collection versions appear to have had additional names interpolated into the older tradition reported by Æthelweard, one of them,Heremod, reflecting the legendary ruler of the DanishScyldings.^[61]
William of Malmesbury'sGesta Regum Anglorum presents a third variant that tries to harmonize the two alternatives. Sceaf appears twice, once as father of Scyld as in the Æthelweard andBeowulf pedigrees, then again as Streph, father of Bedwig atop the longer lineage of theChronicle and Anglian collection.^[62]

The earliest names in the constructed pedigree, the connection to the Biblical genealogy, were the last to be added.Noah has been made father, or viaShem, grandfather of Sceaf and traced back to Adam, an extension not followed by Æthelweard who apparently used a copy of theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle containing that extension, but also had family material independent of theChronicle.^[63]

• Germanic kingship
• Iclingas
• Scefings
• Scyldings
• Sons of Odin
• Yngling
• Widsith
• Wuffingas

• Chambers, R. W.,Beowulf, an Introduction to the Study of the Poem with a Discussion of the Stories of Offa and Finn, Cambridge: University Press, 1921
• Dumville, David, "Kingship, Genealogies and Regnal Lists", inEarly Medieval Kingship, P.W. Sawyer and Ian N. Wood, eds., Leeds University, 1977, pp. 72–104
• Dumville, David "The Anglian collection of royal genealogies and regnal lists", inAnglo-Saxon England, Clemoes, ed., 5 (1976), pp. 23–50.
• Grimm, Jacob (1888).Teutonic Mythologies. Vol. IV (Appendix I: Anglo-Saxon Genealogies). Translated by Stallybrass, James Steven. London: George Bell. pp. 1709–1736.
• Haigh, Daniel Henry (1872),"On the Jute, Angle, and Saxon royal pedigrees",Archaeologia Cantiana,8:18–49
• Kirby, D. P. (2000) [1991].The earliest English kings (revised ed.). Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-24210-3.
• Moisl, Hermann, "Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies and Germanic oral tradition",Journal of Medieval History, 7:3 (1981), pp. 215–48.doi:10.1016/0304-4181(81)90002-6
• Murray, Alexander Callander, "Beowulf, the Danish invasion, and royal genealogy",The Dating of Beowulf,Colin Chase, ed. University of Toronto Center for Medieval Studies, 1997, pp. 101–111.
• Newton, Sam,The Origin of Beowulf and the Pre-Viking Kingdom of East Anglia, Rochester, NY, Boydell & Brewer, 1993.
• North, Richard,Heathen Gods in Old English Literature, Cambridge: University Press, 1997
• Sisam, Kenneth (1953). "Anglo-Saxon Royal Genealogies".Proceedings of the British Academy.39:287–348. (reprinted asSisam, Kenneth (1990). "Anglo-Saxon Genealogies". In Stanley, E. G. (ed.).British Academy Papers on Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 145–204.ISBN 0197260845.)
• Giles, J. A.; Ingram, J. (1847).The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – via atProject Gutenberg.

• English heroic legends
• Medieval genealogies and succession lists
• Anglo-Saxon monarchs
• Odin
• Texts of Anglo-Saxon England
• West Saxon monarchs

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