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Anglo-Frisian languages

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Group of West Germanic languages
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Anglo-Frisian
Geographic
distribution		OriginallyEngland,Scottish Lowlands and theNorth Sea coast fromFriesland toJutland; today worldwide
Linguistic classificationIndo-European
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottologangl1264
Approximate present day distribution of the Anglo-Frisian languages in Europe.

Anglic:

  Scots

Frisian:

Hatched areas indicate wheremultilingualism is common.

TheAnglo-Frisian languages are a proposed sub-branch of theWest Germanic languages encompassing the Anglic languages (English,Scots, extinctFingallian, and extinctYola) as well as theFrisian languages (North Frisian,East Frisian, andWest Frisian). While this relationship had considerable support historically, many modern scholars have criticized it as a valid phylogenetic grouping.[a][b] Instead, they believe that theIngvaeonic languages comprised adialect continuum which stretched along theNorth Sea, finally diverging into distinct languages –Old English, Pre–Old Frisian, andOld Saxon – during theMigration Period in the 5th century.[3] There are still proponents of an Anglo-Frisian node in the West Germanic tree, citing strong archeological and genetic evidence for the comingling of these groups.[4] In the 1950s,Hans Kuhn argued that the two languages diverged at the Ingvaeonic level, but later "converged". He argued that this convergence explained the striking similarity of the two languages while also explaining the issues in chronology. This view has been dismissed as improbable given the geographic divide.[5]

The Anglo-Frisian languages have been distinguished from other West Germanic languages due to severalsound changes: besides theIngvaeonic nasal spirant law, which is present inLow German as well,Anglo-Frisian brightening andpalatalization of/k/ are for the most part unique to the modern Anglo-Frisian languages:

  • Englishcheese, Scotscheese andWest Frisiantsiis, butDutchkaas, Low GermanKees, andGermanKäse
  • Englishchurch, and West Frisiantsjerke, but Dutchkerk, Low GermanKerk,Kark, and GermanKirche, though Scotskirk
  • Englishsheep, Scotssheep and West Frisianskiep, but Dutchschaap (pl.schapen), Low GermanSchaap, GermanSchaf (pl.Schafe)

The grouping is usually implied as a separate branch in regards to thetree model. According to this reading, English and Frisian would have had a proximal ancestral form in common that no other attested group shares. The early Anglo-Frisian varieties, likeOld English andOld Frisian, and the third Ingvaeonic group at the time, the ancestor of Low GermanOld Saxon, were spoken by intercommunicating populations. While this has been cited as a reason for a few traits exclusively shared by Old Saxon and either Old English or Old Frisian,[6] a genetic unity of the Anglo-Frisian languages beyond that of anIngvaeonic subfamily cannot be considered a majority opinion. In fact, the groupings of Ingvaeonic and West Germanic languages are highly debated, even though they rely on much more innovations and evidence. Some scholars consider a Proto-Anglo-Frisian language as disproven, as far as such postulates are falsifiable.[6] Nevertheless, the close ties and strong similarities between the Anglic and the Frisian grouping are part of thescientific consensus. Therefore, the concept of Anglo-Frisian languages can be useful and is today employed without these implications.[6][7]

Geography isolated the settlers ofGreat Britain fromContinental Europe, except from contact with communities capable of open water navigation. This resulted in moreOld Norse andNorman language influences during the development ofLate Modern English, whereas the modern Frisian languages developed under contact with the southern Germanic populations, restricted to the continent.

Classification

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The proposed Anglo-Frisian family tree is:

Anglic languages

[edit]
See also:List of dialects of English andWorld Englishes

Anglic,[12][13]Insular Germanic, orEnglish languages[14][15]and dialects encompassOld English and all thelinguistic varieties descended from it. These includeMiddle English,Early Modern English, andLate Modern English;Early Scots,Middle Scots, andModern Scots; and the extinctFingallian andYola languages inIreland.

English-based creole languages are not generally included, as mainly only theirlexicon and not necessarily their grammar, phonology, etc. comes fromEarly Modern English andLate Modern English.[16]

Frisian languages

[edit]
Main article:Frisian languages

The Frisian languages are a group of languages spoken by about 500,000Frisian people on the southern fringes of theNorth Sea in theNetherlands andGermany. West Frisian, by far the most spoken of the three main branches with 875,840 total speakers,[17][full citation needed] constitutes an official language in theDutchprovince ofFriesland.North Frisian is spoken on some North Frisian Islands and parts of mainlandNorth Frisia in the northernmostGermandistrict of Nordfriesland, and also inHeligoland in theGerman Bight, both part ofSchleswig-Holstein state (Heligoland is part of its mainlanddistrict of Pinneberg). North Frisian has approximately 8,000 speakers.[18][full citation needed] TheEast Frisian language is spoken by only about 2,000 people;[19][full citation needed] speakers are located inSaterland in Germany.
Until the 20th century, multiple dialects of East Frisian were spoken, but today only the Saterland Frisian variety of the Ems dialect survives. In contrast, West Frisian comprises three main dialects, while North Frisian includes ten distinct varieties.

  • West Frisian dialects:[17]
    • Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
    • South or Southwest Frisian (Súdhoeksk)
    • Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)
  • North Frisian dialects:[18]
    • Insular dialects
      • Sylt Frisian (Söl'ring)
      • Föhr-Amrum Frisian (Fering, Öömrang)
      • Heligolandic Frisian (Halunder)
    • Mainland dialects
      • Wiedingharde Frisian (Wiringhiirder)
      • Bökingharde Frisian (Mooringer)
      • Karrharde Frisian (Karrharder)
      • Goesharde Frisian (Gooshiirder)
        • Northern Goesharde Frisian (incl. Hooringer Fräisch & Hoolmer Freesch)
        • Central Goesharde Frisian
        • Southern Goesharde Frisian (extinct since early 1980s)
      • Halligen Frisian (Halifreesk)

Anglo-Frisian developments

[edit]

The following is a summary of the major sound changes affecting vowels in chronological order.[20] For additional detail, seePhonological history of Old English. That these were simultaneous and in that order for all Anglo-Frisian languages is considered disproved by some scholars.[6]

  1. Backing and nasalization of West Germanica andā before a nasal consonant
  2. Loss ofn before a spirant, resulting inlengthening andnasalization of preceding vowel
  3. Single form for present and preterite plurals
  4. A-fronting: West Germanica,ā >æ,ǣ, even in the diphthongsai andau (seeAnglo-Frisian brightening)
  5. palatalization ofProto-Germanic*k and*g before front vowels (but not phonemicization of palatals)
  6. A-restoration:æ,ǣ >a,ā under the influence of neighboring consonants[clarification needed]
  7. Second fronting: OE dialects (exceptWest Saxon) and Frisianǣ >ē
  8. A-restoration:a restored before a back vowel in the following syllable (later in theSouthumbrian dialects); Frisianæu >au > Old Frisianā/a
  9. OE breaking; in West Saxon palatal diphthongization follows
  10. i-mutation followed bysyncope; Old Frisian breaking follows
  11. Phonemicization of palatals andassibilation, followed by second fronting in parts of West Mercia
  12. Smoothing andback mutation

Comparisons

[edit]

Numbers in Anglo-Frisian languages

[edit]

These are the words for the numbers one to 12 in the Anglo-Frisian languages, with Dutch, Afrikaans, West-Flemish, and German included for comparison:

Language123456789101112
Englishonetwothreefourfivesixseveneightnineteneleventwelve
West Riding Yorkshireonetwothreefowerfivesixseveneightnineten(e)leventwelve
Scots[c]ane
ae*
een
yin		twathreefowerfivesaxseivenaichtnineteneleiventwal
Yolaoantwyedhreevourveevezeesezevenayghtneendhenellventwalve
West Frisianientwatrijefjouwerfiifseissânachtnjoggentsienalvetolve
Saterland Frisianaan (m.)
een (f., n.)		twäin (m.)
two (f., n.)		träi (m.)
trjo (f., n.)		fjauerfieuwsäkssogenoachtenjúgentjoonalventwelig
North Frisian (Mooring dialect)iinj
ån		tou
tuu		trii
tra		fjouerfiiwseekssoowenoochtnüügentiinalwentweelwen
Dutcheentweedrieviervijfzeszevenachtnegentienelftwaalf
West-Flemishjintwidriejevierevuvvezessezeevneachteneegntieneelvetwolve
Afrikaanseentweedrieviervyfsesseweagtnegetienelftwaalf
High Germaneinszweidreivierfünfsechssiebenachtneunzehnelfzwölf

*Ae[eː],[jeː] is an adjectival form used before nouns.[21]

Words in English, West Riding Yorkshire, Scots, Yola, West Frisian, Afrikaans, Dutch, German and West-Flemish

[edit]
EnglishWest Riding YorkshireScotsYolaWest FrisianAfrikaansDutchGermanWest-Flemish
daydaydaydeideidagdagTagdah
worldwarldwarldeordwrâldwêreldwereldWeltwèreld
rainrainrainrhynereinreënregenRegenrinne
bloodblooidbluidblooedbloedbloedbloedBlutbloed
alonealoanalanealaneallinnealleenalleenalleinoaljinne
stonestoanstanesthoanstiensteensteenSteinstjin
snowsnawsnawsneowsniesneeusneeuwSchneesnji(w)
summersummersimmerzimmersimmersomerzomerSommerzomer
waywayweywyeweiwegwegWegweh
almightyalmeetyawmichtieaulmichtyalmachtichalmagtigalmachtigallmächtigoalmahtih
shipshipshipzhipskipskipschipSchiffskip/sjgip
nailnailnailnielneilnaelnagelNagelnoagle
oldowdauldyolaâldoudoudaltoed
butterbutterbutterbutherbûterbotterboterButterbeuter
cheesecheesecheesecheesetsiiskaaskaasKäsekoas
appleappleaipleappelapelappelappelApfelapple
churchchurch (older kurk)kirkchourchetsjerkekerkkerkKirchekerke
sonsonsonzonsoanseunzoonSohnzeune
doordoordoordherdoardeurdeurTürdeure
goodgooidguidgooudegoedgoedgoedguthoed
forkforkforkvorkfoarkevurkvorkGabel
Forke (dated)		vork
sibsib (obsolete)sibmeany / sibbe (dated)sibbesibbesibbe (dated)Sippe
togethertogetherthegitheragythertegearresaam/tesamesamen
tegader		zusammentegoare
morn(ing)morn(in)morn(in)arichmoarnmôremorgenMorgenmorhn
until, tillwhol, until, tilluntil, tilldeloanttottotbistot
wherewheerwhauror wharefidiewêrwaarwaarwowoa(r)(e)
keykeykey[d]kei / kiekaaisleutelsleutelSchlüsselsleutle
have been (was)worwiswasha westwas geweesben geweestbin gewesenzy(n)/è gewist
two sheeptwo sheeptwa sheeptwye zheeptwa skieptwee skapetwee schapenzwei Schafetwi skoapn
havehave/hev/hahaehahawwehethebbenhabenèn
usuzusouseúsonsonsunsoes
horsehosshorsecaulehynder
hoars (rare)		perdpaard
ros (dated)		Pferd
Ross (dated)		pèrd
breadbreeadbreidbreedbreabroodbroodBrotbrwot
hairhairhairhaarhierhaar/harehaarHaaroar
heartheartherthearthhertharthartHerzèrte
beardbeardbeardbeardeburdbaardbaardBartboard
moonmooinmuinmondmoannemaanmaanMondmoane
mouthmaath, gobmoothmeouthmûnmondmondMundmoend
earear, lugear, lug (colloquial)lugearooroorOhrwore/ôre
greengreengreengreengriengroengroengrüngroene
redredreidreedreadrooiroodrotrwod/rôd
sweetsweetsweetsweetswietsoetzoetsüßzoet
throughthroo/throthrou[e]draughtrochdeurdoordurchdeur
wetweetweetweatewietnatnatnassnat
eyeeeeeei / ieeeachoogoogAugewooge/ôoge
dreamdreeamdreamdreemdreamdroomdroomTraumdroom
mousemaasemoosemeousemûsmuismuisMausmuzze
househaasehooseheousehûshuishuisHaushus
it goes onit goes/goas onit gaes/gangs onit goath anit giet oandit gaan aanhet gaat doores geht weiter/lostgoa deure
good daygooid dayguid daygooude deigoeie (dei)goeie daggoedendagguten Taggoein dah

Alternative grouping

[edit]
Main article:North Sea Germanic

North Sea Germanic, also known as Ingvaeonic, is a proposed grouping of theWest Germanic languages that encompassesOld Frisian,Old English,[f] andOld Saxon.[g] The North Sea Germanic grouping may be regarded as an alternative to Anglo-Frisian, or as ancestral to it.

Since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German – especially in its older stages such as Old Saxon – some scholars regard the North Sea Germanic classification as more meaningful than a sharp division into Anglo-Frisian and Low German. In other words, because Old Saxon came under strong Old High German and Old Low Franconian influence at an early stage, it lost some North Sea Germanic features,[23] that it had previously shared with Old English and Old Frisian.

North Sea Germanic is not thought of as a monolithicproto-language, but rather as a group of closely related dialects that underwent several areal changes in relative unison.[h]

The extinction of two little-attested and presumably North Sea Germanic languages,Old Anglian andOld Jutish, in their homelands (modernsouthern Schleswig andJutland respectively), may have led to a form of "survivorship bias" in classification. Since Old Anglian and Jutish were, like Old Saxon, direct ancestors of Old English, it might follow that Old Saxon, Old Anglian and/or Jutish were more closely related to English than any of them was to Frisian (or vice versa).

North Sea Germanic, as a hypothetical grouping, was first proposed inNordgermanen und Alemannen (1942) by the German linguist and philologistFriedrich Maurer (1898–1984), as an alternative to the stricttree diagrams that had become popular following the work of the 19th-century linguistAugust Schleicher and which assumed the existence of an Anglo-Frisian group.[25]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^"According to most researchers, this means that there cannot have been an 'original' Anglo-Frisian entity [...]."[1]
  2. ^"It is not possible to construct the exclusive common relative chronology that is necessary in order to be able to establish a node on a family tree. The term and concept of 'Anglo-Frisian' should be banished to the historiography of the subject."[2]
  3. ^Depending on dialect 1.[en],[jɪn],[in],[wan],[*eː],[jeː] 2.[twɑː],[twɔː],[tweː],[twaː] 3.[θrəi],[θriː],[triː] 4.[ˈfʌu(ə)r],[fuwr] 5.[faiːv],[fɛv] 6.[saks] 7.[ˈsiːvən],[ˈseːvən],[ˈsəivən] 8.[ext],[ɛçt] 9.[nəin],[nin] 10.[tɛn].
  4. ^Depending on dialect[kiː] or[kəi].
  5. ^Depending on dialect[θruː] or[θrʌu].
  6. ^Also known asAnglo-Saxon.
  7. ^Some includeWest Flemish.[22]
  8. ^For a full discussion of the areal changes involved and their relative chronologies, see Voyles (1992).[24]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Bazelmans 2009, p. 326.
  2. ^Stiles 2018, p. 31.
  3. ^Bazelmans 2009, pp. 325–326.
  4. ^Colleran 2019, p. 78.
  5. ^Buczek 2020, pp. 251–252.
  6. ^abcdStiles 2018.
  7. ^Hines, John; IJssennagger, Nelleke, eds. (2017).Frisians and their North Sea Neighbours: From the Fifth Century to the Viking Age.Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.doi:10.1017/9781787440630.ISBN 978-1-78744-063-0.
  8. ^abTrudgill, Peter (1990).The dialects of England. Cambridge, Mass., USA: B. Blackwell.ISBN 0631139176.
  9. ^Hickey, Raymond (2005).Dublin English: Evolution and Change. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 196–198.ISBN 90-272-4895-8.
  10. ^Hickey, Raymond (2002).A Source Book for Irish English. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 28–29.ISBN 9027237530.
  11. ^Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert;Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (10 July 2023)."Glottolog 4.8 - Irish Anglo-Norman".Glottolog. Leipzig, Germany:Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.doi:10.5281/zenodo.8131084.Archived from the original on 17 July 2023. Retrieved16 July 2023.
  12. ^Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Anglic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  13. ^Woolf, Alex (2007).From Pictland to Alba, 789–1070. The New Edinburgh History of Scotland. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.ISBN 978-0-7486-1234-5., p. 336
  14. ^J. Derrick McClureScots its range of Uses in A. J. Aitken, Tom McArthur, Languages of Scotland, W. and R. Chambers, 1979. p.27
  15. ^Thomas Burns McArthur, The English Languages, Cambridge University Press, 1998. p.203
  16. ^Velupillai, Viveka (2015).Pidgins, Creoles and Mixed Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 519.ISBN 978-90-272-5272-2.
  17. ^ab"Frisian | Ethnologue Free".
  18. ^ab"Frisian, Northern | Ethnologue Free".
  19. ^"Saterfriesisch | Ethnologue Free".
  20. ^Fulk, Robert D. (1998). "The Chronology of Anglo-Frisian Sound Changes". In Bremmer Jr., Rolf H.; Johnston, Thomas S.B.; Vries, Oebele (eds.).Approaches to Old Frisian Philology. Amsterdam: Rodopoi. p. 185.
  21. ^Grant, William; Dixon, James Main (1921).Manual of Modern Scots. Cambridge: University Press. p. 105. Retrieved30 December 2024.
  22. ^Bremmer (2009), p. 22.
  23. ^Munske, Horst Haider; Århammar, Nils, eds. (2001).Handbuch des Friesischen: = Handbook of Frisian studies. Tübingen: Niemeyer.ISBN 978-3-484-73048-9.
  24. ^Voyles (1992).
  25. ^"Geschichte des Lehrstuhls: Friedrich Maurer". Lehrstuhl für Germanische Philologie (Linguistik).Universität Freiburg. 21 November 2012. Archived fromthe original on 30 November 2012. Retrieved24 June 2013.

Sources

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
  • Maurer, Friedrich (1942).Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde (in German). Strasbourg: Hünenburg.LCCN 86206457.OCLC 17179777.OL 2322774M.
  • Euler, Wolfram (2013).Das Westgermanische [West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction] (in German). London/Berlin: Verlag Inspiration Un Ltd. p. 244.ISBN 978-3-9812110-7-8.
  • Ringe, Don; Taylor, Ann (2014).The Development of Old English - A Linguistic History of English. Vol. 2. Oxford: University Press.ISBN 978-0199207848.
According to contemporaryphilology
Anglo-Frisian
Anglic
Frisian
Historical forms
East Frisian
North Frisian
West Frisian
Low German
Historical forms
West Low German
East Low German
Low Franconian
Historical forms
Standard variants
West Low Franconian
East Low Franconian
Cover groups
High German
(German)
Historical forms
Standard German
Non-standard variants
andcreoles
Central German
West Central German
East Central German
Upper German
North
Historical forms
West
East
East
Language subgroups
Reconstructed
Diachronic features
Synchronic features
Vowels
Consonants
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