Andalusia has historically been an agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. Still, the growth of the community in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain and higher than many communities in theEurozone. The region has a rich culture and a strong identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin. These includeflamenco and, to a lesser extent,bullfighting andHispano-Moorisharchitectural styles, both of which are also prevalent in some other regions of Spain.
Andalusia's hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, withCórdoba andSeville averaging above 36 °C (97 °F) in summer high temperatures.[20][21] These high temperatures, typical of the Guadalquivir valley are usually reached between 16:00 (4 p.m.) and 21:00 (9 p.m.) (local time),[22] tempered by sea and mountain breezes afterwards.[23] However, duringheat waves late evening temperatures can locally stay around 35 °C (95 °F) until close to midnight, and daytime highs of over 40 °C (104 °F) are common.
Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia, "Al-Andalus".[24][25][26] Theetymology of the name "Al-Andalus" is disputed,[27] and the extent of Iberian territory encompassed by the name has changed over the centuries.[28] Traditionally it has been assumed to be derived from the name of theVandals. Since the 1980s, a number of proposals have challenged this contention. Halm, in 1989, derived the name from a Gothic term,*landahlauts,[29]and in 2002, Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate.[27]
The Spanish place nameAndalucía (immediate source of the EnglishAndalusia) was introduced into theSpanish languages in the 13th century under the formel Andalucía.[30] The name was adopted to refer to those territories still under Moorish rule, and generally south ofCastilla Nueva andValencia, and corresponding with the former Roman province hitherto calledBaetica in Latin sources. This was a Castilianization ofAl-Andalusiya, theadjectival form of the Arabic languageal-Andalus, the name given by the Arabs to all of the Iberian territories under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. The etymology ofal-Andalus is itself somewhat debated (seeal-Andalus), but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this area came under Moorish rule.
Like the Arabic termal-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish termAndalucía or the English termAndalusia do not necessarily refer to the exact territory designated by these terms today. Initially, the term referred exclusively to territories under Muslim control. Later, it was applied to some of the last Iberian territories to be regained from the Muslims, though not always to exactly the same ones.[30] In theEstoria de España (also known as thePrimera Crónica General) ofAlfonso X of Castile, written in the second half of the 13th century, the termAndalucía is used with three different meanings:
As a literal translation of the Arabical-Ándalus when Arabic texts are quoted.
To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in theGuadalquivir valley and in the Kingdoms ofGranada andMurcia. In a document from 1253, Alfonso X styled himselfRey de Castilla, León y de toda Andalucía ("King of Castile, León and all of Andalusia").
To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in the Guadalquivir valley until that date (the Kingdoms ofJaén,Córdoba andSeville – the Kingdom of Granada was incorporated in 1492). This was the most common significance in theLate Middle Ages andEarly modern period.[31]
From an administrative point of view, Granada remained separate for many years even after the completion of theReconquista[31] due, above all, to its emblematic character as the last territory regained, and as the seat of the importantReal Chancillería de Granada, acourt of last resort. Still, the reconquest and repopulation of Granada was accomplished largely by people from the three preexisting Christian kingdoms of Andalusia, and Granada came to be considered a fourth kingdom of Andalusia.[32] The often-used expression "Four Kingdoms of Andalusia" dates back in Spanish at least to the mid-18th century.[33][34]
The Andalusian emblem shows the figure ofHercules and twolions between the twopillars of Hercules that tradition situates on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar. An inscription below, superimposed on an image of theflag of Andalusia readsAndalucía por sí, para España y la Humanidad ("Andalusia for herself, Spain and Humanity"). Over the two columns is a semicircular arch in the colours of the flag of Andalusia, with theLatin wordsDominator Hercules Fundator (Lord Hercules is the Founder) superimposed.[1]
The official flag of Andalusia consists of three equal horizontal stripes, coloured green, white, and green respectively; the Andalusian coat of arms is superimposed on the central stripe.[35] Its design was overseen byBlas Infante[36] and approved in theAssembly of Ronda (a 1918 gathering ofAndalusian nationalists atRonda). Blas Infante considered these to have been the colours most used in regional symbols throughout the region's history. According to him, the green came in particular from thestandard of theUmayyad Caliphate and represented the call for a gathering of the populace. The white symbolised pardon in theAlmohad dynasty, interpreted in European heraldry as parliament or peace. Other writers have justified the colours differently, with some Andalusian nationalists referring to them as theArbonaida, meaning white-and-green inMozarabic, aRomance language that was spoken in the region in Muslim times. Nowadays, the Andalusian government states that the colours of the flag evoke the Andalusian landscape as well as values of purity and hope for the future.[35]
Theanthem of Andalusia was composed by José del Castillo Díaz (director of the Municipal Band of Seville, commonly known as Maestro Castillo) with lyrics by Blas Infante.[36] The music was inspired bySanto Dios, a popular religious song sung at harvest time by peasants and day labourers in the provinces of Málaga, Seville, and Huelva. Blas Infante brought the song to Maestro Castillo's attention; Maestro Castillo adapted and harmonized the traditional melody. The lyrics appeal to the Andalusians to mobilise and demandtierra y libertad ("land and liberty") by way ofagrarian reform and a statute of autonomy within Spain.
TheParliament of Andalusia voted unanimously in 1983 that the preamble to theStatute of Autonomy recognise Blas Infante as the Father of the Andalusian Nation (Padre de la Patria Andaluza),[37] which was reaffirmed in the reformed Statute of Autonomy submitted to popularreferendum 18 February 2007. The preamble of the present 2007 Statute of Autonomy says that Article 2 of the presentSpanish Constitution of 1978 recognises Andalusia as anationality. Later, in its articulation, it speaks of Andalusia as a "historic nationality" (Spanish:nacionalidad histórica). It also cites the 1919 Andalusianist Manifesto of Córdoba describing Andalusia as a "national reality" (realidad nacional), but does not endorse that formulation. Article 1 of the earlier 1981 Statute of Autonomy defined it simply as a "nationality" (nacionalidad).[38]
The national holiday,Andalusia Day, is celebrated on 28 February,[39] commemorating the 1980 autonomy referendum.
The honorific title ofHijo Predilecto de Andalucía ("Favourite Son of Andalusia") is granted by the Autonomous Government of Andalusia to those whose exceptional merits benefited Andalusia, for work or achievements in natural, social, or political science. It is the highest distinction given by the Autonomous Community of Andalusia.[40]
one must seek the essence of Andalusia in its geographic reality on the one hand, and on the other in the awareness of its inhabitants. From the geographic point of view, the whole of the southern lands is too vast and varied to be embraced as a single unit. In reality there are not two, but three Andalusias: theSierra Morena, the Valley [of theGuadalquivir] and the [Cordillera]Penibética[41]
Andalusia is home to the hottest and driest climates in Spain, with yearly average rainfall around 150 millimetres (5.9 in) inCabo de Gata, as well as some of the wettest ones, with yearly average rainfall above 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in inlandCádiz.[44] In the west, weather systems sweeping in from the Atlantic ensure that it is relatively wet and humid in the winter, with some areas receiving copious amounts. Contrary to what many people think, as a whole, the region enjoys above-average yearly rainfall in the context of Spain.[45]
Andalusia sits at a latitude between 36° and 38° 44' N, in the warm-temperate region. In general, it experiences ahot-summer Mediterranean climate, with dry summers influenced by theAzores High, but subject to occasional torrential rains and extremely hot temperatures.[43][46] In the winter, the tropical anticyclones move south, allowing cold polar fronts to penetrate the region. Still, within Andalusia there is considerable climatic variety. From the extensive coastal plains one may pass to the valley of the Guadalquivir, barely above sea level, then to the highest altitudes in the Iberian peninsula in the peaks of theSierra Nevada. In a mere 50 km (31 mi) one can pass from the subtropical coast of the province of Granada to the snowy peaks ofMulhacén. Andalusia also includes both the dryTabernas Desert in the province of Almería and theSierra de Grazalema Natural Park in the province of Cádiz, which experiences one of highest rainfall in Spain.[47][48][49]
Annual rainfall in the Sierra de Grazalema has been measured as high as 4,346 millimetres (171.1 in) in 1963, the highest ever recorded for any location in Iberia.[50] Andalusia is also home to the driest place inEurope, theCabo de Gata, with only 156 millimetres (6.1 in) of rain per year.[51][52]
In general, as one goes from west to east, away from the Atlantic, there is less precipitation.[50] "Wet Andalusia" includes most of the highest points in the region, above all the Sierra de Grazalema but also theSerranía de Ronda in western Málaga. The valley of the Guadalquivir has moderate rainfall. TheTabernas Desert in Almería has less than 300 millimetres (12 in) annually.[49] Much of "dry Andalusia" has more than 300 sunny days a year.[53]
The average temperature in Andalusia throughout the year is around 16.6 °C (61.9 °F). Averages in the cities range from 15.1 °C (59.2 °F) inBaeza to 19.6 °C (67.3 °F) inSeville. However, a small region on the Mediterranean coast ofAlmeria andGranada provinces have average annual temperature over 20 °C (68 °F).[54] Much of the Guadalquivir valley and the Mediterranean coast has an average of about 18 °C (64 °F). The coldest month is January whenGranada at the foot of the Sierra Nevada experiences an average temperature of 6.4 °C (43.5 °F). The hottest are July and August, with an average temperature of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) for Andalusia as a whole.Córdoba is the hottest provincial capital, followed bySeville.[55]
The Guadalquivir valley has experienced some of the highest temperatures recorded in Europe, with a maximum of 47.6 °C (117.7 °F) recorded atLa Rambla, Córdoba (14 August 2021).[56] The mountains of Granada and Jaén have the coldest temperatures in southern Iberia, but do not reach continental extremes (and, indeed are surpassed by some mountains in northern Spain). In the cold snap of January 2005,Santiago de la Espada (Jaén) experienced a temperature of −21 °C (−6 °F) and theski resort atSierra Nevada National Park—the southernmost ski resort in Europe—dropped to −18 °C (0 °F). Sierra Nevada Natural Park has Iberia's lowest average annual temperature, (3.9 °C or 39.0 °F at Pradollano) and its peaks remain snowy practically year-round.
Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected cities in Andalusia[57]
Locations of the principal features of the Andalusian terrain.Mulhacén peak is the highest point of continental Europe outside the Caucasus Mountains and the Alps. It is part of theSierra Nevada range.
Mountain ranges affect climate, the network of rivers, soils and their erosion, bioregions, and even human economies insofar as they rely on natural resources.[58] The Andalusian terrain offers a range of altitudes and slopes. Andalusia has the Iberian peninsula's highest mountains and nearly 15 percent of its terrain over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The picture is similar for areas under 100 metres (330 ft) (with the Baetic Depression), and for the variety of slopes.
The Atlantic coast is overwhelmingly beach and gradually sloping coasts; the Mediterranean coast has many cliffs, above all in the MalaganAxarquía and in Granada and Almería.[59] This asymmetry divides the region naturally intoUpper Andalusia [es] (two mountainous areas) andLower Andalusia [es] (the broad basin of the Guadalquivir).[60]
TheSierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spain'sMeseta Central. Although sparsely populated, this is not a particularly high range, and its highest point, the 1,323-metre (4,341 ft) peak of LaBañuela in theSierra Madrona, lies outside of Andalusia. Within the Sierra Morena, thegorge ofDespeñaperros forms a natural frontier between Castile and Andalusia.
TheBaetic Cordillera consists of the parallel mountain ranges of theCordillera Penibética near the Mediterranean coast and theCordillera Subbética inland, separated by theSurco Intrabético. The Cordillera Subbética is quite discontinuous, offering many passes that facilitate transportation, but the Penibético forms a strong barrier between the Mediterranean coast and the interior.[61] The Sierra Nevada, part of the Cordillera Penibética in the province of Granada, has the highest peaks in Iberia: ElMulhacén at 3,478 metres (11,411 ft) and ElVeleta at 3,392 metres (11,129 ft).
Lower Andalusia, theBaetic Depression, the basin of the Guadalquivir, lies between these two mountainous areas. It is a nearly flat territory, open to theGulf of Cádiz in the southwest. Throughout history, this has been the most populous part of Andalusia.
The rivers of the Atlantic basin are characteristically long, run through mostly flat terrain, and have broad river valleys. As a result, at their mouths areestuaries andwetlands, such as the marshes ofDoñana in the delta of the Guadalquivir, andwetlands of the Odiel. In contrast, the rivers of the Mediterranean Basin are shorter, more seasonal, and make a precipitous descent from the mountains of the Baetic Cordillera. Their estuaries are small, and their valleys are less suitable for agriculture. Also, being in therain shadow of the Baetic Cordillera means that they receive a lesser volume of water.[60]
The following hydrographic basins can be distinguished in Andalusia. On the Atlantic side are the Guadalquivir basin; the Andalusian Atlantic Basin with the sub-basins Guadalete-Barbate and Tinto-Odiel; and the Guadiana basin. On the Mediterranean side is the Andalusian Mediterranean Basin and the upper portion of thebasin of the Segura.[63]
The Sierra Morena, due to its morphology and the acidic content of its rocks, developed principally relatively poor, shallow soils, suitable only for forests. In the valleys and in some areas wherelimestone is present, deeper soils allowed farming of cereals suitable for livestock. The more complicated morphology of the Baetic Cordillera makes it more heterogeneous, with the most heterogeneous soils in Andalusia. Very roughly, in contrast to the Sierra Morena, a predominance ofbasic (alkaline) materials in the Cordillera Subbética, combined with a hilly landscape, generates deeper soils with greater agricultural capacity, suitable to the cultivation of olives.[65]
Finally, the Baetic Depression and the Surco Intrabético have deep, rich soils, with great agricultural capacity. In particular, thealluvial soils of theGuadalquivir valley and plain ofGranada have aloamy texture and are particularly suitable for intensive irrigated crops.[66] In the hilly areas of the countryside, there is a double dynamic: the depressions have filled with older lime-rich material, developing the deep, rich, darkclay soils the Spanish callbujeo, ortierras negras andaluzas, excellent for dryland farming. In other zones, the whiteralbariza provides an excellent soil forvineyards.[67]
Despite their marginal quality, the poorly consolidated soils of the sandy coastline of Huelva and Almería have been successfully used in recent decades for hothouse cultivation under clear plastic of strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other fruits.
Biogeographically, Andalusia forms part of the Western Mediterranean subregion of theMediterranean Basin, which falls within theBoreal Kingdom. Fivefloristic provinces lie, in whole or in part, within Andalusia: along much of the Atlantic coast, the Lusitanian-Andalusian littoral or Andalusian Atlantic littoral; in the north, the southern portion of the Luso-Extremaduran floristic province; covering roughly half of the region, the Baetic floristic province; and in the extreme east, the Almerian portion of the Almerian-Murcian floristic province and (coinciding roughly with the upper Segura basin) a small portion of the Castilian-Maestrazgan-Manchegan floristic province. These names derive primarily from past or present political geography: "Luso" and "Lusitanian" fromLusitania, one of threeRoman provinces in Iberia, most of the others from present-day Spanish provinces, andMaestrazgo being a historical region of northernValencia.
In broad terms, the typical vegetation of Andalusia isMediterranean woodland, characterized byleafyxerophilicperennials, adapted to the long, dry summers. The dominant species of theclimax community is the holly oak (Quercus ilex). Also abundant are cork oak (Quercus suber), variouspines, and Spanish fir (Abies pinsapo). Due to cultivation,olive (Olea europaea) andalmond (Prunus dulcis) trees also abound. The dominantunderstory is composed of thorny and aromatic woody species, such asrosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis),thyme (Thymus), andCistus. In the wettest areas withacidic soils, the most abundant species are the oak and cork oak, and the cultivatedEucalyptus. In the woodlands, leafyhardwoods of genusPopulus (poplars, aspens, cottonwoods) andUlmus (elms) are also abundant; poplars are cultivated in the plains of Granada.[68]
The Andalusian woodlands have been much altered by human settlement, the use of nearly all of the best land for farming, and frequentwildfires. The degraded forests become shrubby and combustiblegarrigue. Extensive areas have been planted with non-climax trees such as pines. There is now a clear conservation policy for the remaining forests, which survive almost exclusively in the mountains.
Thebiodiversity of Andalusia extends to its fauna as well. More than 400 of the 630 vertebrate species extant in Spain can be found in Andalusia. Spanning the Mediterranean and Atlantic basins, and adjacent to the Strait of Gibraltar, Andalusia is on the migratory route of many of the numerous flocks of birds that travel annually from Europe to Africa and back.[69]
Among theherbivores, are severaldeer (Cervidae) species, notably thefallow deer (Dama dama) androe deer (Capreolus capreolus); theEuropean mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), a feral sheep; and theSpanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica, which despite its scientific name is no longer found in thePyrenees). The Spanish ibex has recently been losing ground to theBarbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), aninvasive species from Africa, introduced for hunting in the 1970s. Among the small herbivores are rabbits—especially theEuropean rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)—which form the most important part of the diet of the carnivorous species of the Mediterranean woodlands.
The largecarnivores such as theIberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and theIberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) are quite threatened, and are limited to the Sierra de Andújar, inside of Sierra Morena, Doñana and Despeñaperros. Stocks of thewild boar (Sus scrofa), on the other hand, have been well preserved because they are popular with hunters. More abundant and in varied situations of conservation are such smaller carnivores asotters, dogs, foxes, theEuropean badger (Meles meles), theEuropean polecat (Mustela putorius), theleast weasel (Mustela nivalis), theEuropean wildcat (Felis silvestris), thecommon genet (Genetta genetta), and theEgyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon).[70]
Andalusia has many unique ecosystems. In order to preserve these areas in a manner compatible with both conservation and economic exploitation, many of the most representative ecosystems have been given protected status.[71][72]
The various levels of protection are encompassed within the Network of Protected Natural Spaces of Andalusia (Red de Espacios Naturales Protegidos de Andalucía, RENPA) which integrates all protected natural spaces located in Andalusia, whether they are protected at the level of the local community, the autonomous community of Andalusia, the Spanish state, or by international conventions. RENPA consists of 150 protected spaces, consisting of twonational parks, 24natural parks, 21 periurban parks (on the fringes of cities or towns), 32 natural sites, two protected countrysides, 37 natural monuments, 28 nature reserves, and four concerted nature reserves (in which a government agency coordinates with the owner of the property for its management), all part of theEuropean Union'sNatura 2000 network. Under the international ambit are the nineBiosphere Reserves, 20Ramsar wetland sites, fourSpecially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance and twoUNESCOGeoparks.[73]
The geostrategic position of Andalusia, at the southernmost tip ofEurope, between Europe andAfrica and between theAtlantic Ocean and theMediterranean Sea, has made it a hub for various civilizations since theMetal Ages. Its wealth of minerals and fertile land, combined with its large surface area, attracted settlers from thePhoenicians to theGreeks, who influenced the development of early cultures likeLos Millares,El Argar, andTartessos. These early Andalusian societies played a vital role in the region's transition from prehistory toprotohistory.
With theRoman conquest, Andalusia became fully integrated into the Roman world as the prosperous province ofBaetica, which contributed emperors likeTrajan andHadrian to the Roman Empire. During this time, Andalusia was a key economic center, providing resources and cultural contributions to Rome. Even after the Germanic invasions of Iberia by theVandals andVisigoths, the region retained much of its Roman cultural and political significance, with figures such asSaint Isidore of Seville maintaining Andalusia's intellectual heritage.
In 711, theUmayyad conquest of Hispania marked a major cultural and political shift, as Andalusia became a focal point ofal-Andalus, the Muslim-controlled Iberian Peninsula. The city ofCórdoba emerged as the capital of al-Andalus and one of the most important cultural and economic centers of the medieval world. The height of Andalusian prosperity came during theCaliphate of Córdoba, under rulers likeAbd al-Rahman III andAl-Hakam II, when the region became known for its advancements in science, philosophy, and architecture. However, the 11th century brought internal divisions with the fragmentation of al-Andalus intotaifas—small, independent kingdoms—which allowed theReconquista to push southwards. By the late 13th century, much of Andalusia had been reconquered by theCrown of Castile, led by monarchs likeFerdinand III of Castile, who captured the fertileGuadalquivir valley. The last Muslim kingdom, theNasrid Kingdom of Granada, held out until its defeat in 1492, marking the completion of the Reconquista.
In the centuries following the Reconquista, Andalusia played a central role in Spain's exploration and colonization of theNew World. Cities likeSeville andCádiz became major hubs for transatlantic trade. However, despite its global influence during theSpanish Empire, Andalusia experienced economic decline due to a combination of military expenditures and failed industrialization efforts in the 17th and 18th centuries. In the modern era, Andalusia became part of Spain's movement towards autonomy, culminating in its designation as anautonomous community in 1981. Despite its rich history, the region faces challenges in overcoming economic disparities and aligning with the wealthier parts of theEuropean Union.
The Autonomous Community of Andalusia was formed in accord with a referendum of 28 February 1980[74] and became an autonomous community under the 1981 Statute of Autonomy known as theEstatuto de Carmona. The process followed theSpanish Constitution of 1978, still current as of 2009, which recognizes and guarantees the right of autonomy for the various regions and nationalities of Spain. The process to establish Andalusia as an autonomous region followed Article 151 of the Constitution, making Andalusia the only autonomous community to take that particular course. That article was set out for regions like Andalusia that had been prevented by the outbreak of theSpanish Civil War from adopting a statute of autonomy during the period of theSecond Spanish Republic.
Article 1 of the 1981 Statute of Autonomy justifies autonomy based on the region's "historical identity, on the self-government that the Constitution permits every nationality, on outright equality to the rest of the nationalities and regions that compose Spain, and with a power that emanates from the Andalusian Constitution and people, reflected in its Statute of Autonomy".[75]
In October 2006 the constitutional commission of theCortes Generales (the national legislature of Spain), with favorable votes from the left-of-centerSpanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), the leftistUnited Left (IU) and the right-of-centerPeople's Party (PP), approved a new Statute of Autonomy for Andalusia, whose preamble refers to the community as a "national reality" (realidad nacional):
The Andalusianist Manifesto of Córdoba described Andalusia as a national reality in 1919, whose spirit the Andalusians took up outright through the process of self-government recognized in our Magna Carta. In 1978 the Andalusians broadly backed the constitutional consensus. Today, the Constitution, in its Article 2, recognizes Andalusia as a nationality as part of the indissoluble unity of the Spanish nation.[38]
On 2 November 2006 the Spanish Chamber Deputies ratified the text of the Constitutional Commission with 306 votes in favor, none opposed, and 2 abstentions. This was the first time a SpanishOrganic Law adopting a Statute of Autonomy was approved with no opposing votes. The Senate, in a plenary session of 20 December 2006, ratified the referendum to be voted upon by the Andalusian public 18 February 2007.
The Statute of Autonomy spells out Andalusia's distinct institutions of government and administration. Chief among these is theAndalusian Autonomous Government (Junta de Andalucía). Other institutions specified in the Statute are the Defensor del Pueblo Andaluz (literally "Defender of the Andalusian People", basically anombudsperson), the Consultative Council, the Chamber of Accounts, the Audiovisual Council of Andalusia, and the Economic and Social Council.
The Andalusian Statute of Autonomy recognizes Seville as the autonomy's capital. The Andalusian Autonomous Government is located there. The region's highest court, theHigh Court of Andalusia (Tribunal Superior de Justicia de Andalucía) is not part of the Autonomous Government, and has its seat inGranada.
The Andalusian Autonomous Government (Junta de Andalucía) is the institution of self-government of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. Within the government, thePresident of Andalusia is the supreme representative of the autonomous community, and the ordinary representative of the Spanish state in the autonomous community. The president is formally named to the position by theMonarch of Spain and then confirmed by a majority vote of theParliament of Andalusia. In practice, the monarch always names a person acceptable to the ruling party or coalition of parties in the autonomous region. In theory, were the candidate to fail to gain the needed majority, the monarch could propose a succession of candidates. After two months, if no proposed candidate could gain the parliament's approval, the parliament would automatically be dissolved and the acting president would call new elections.[76] On 18 January 2019Juan Manuel Moreno was elected as the sixth president of Andalusia.[77]
The Council of Government, the highest political and administrative organ of the Community, exercisesregulatory andexecutive power.[78] The President presides over the council, which also includes the heads of various departments (Consejerías). In the current legislature (2008–2012), there are 15 of these departments. In order of precedence, they are Presidency, Governance, Economy and Treasury, Education, Justice and Public Administration, Innovation, Science and Business, Public Works and Transportation, Employment, Health, Agriculture and Fishing, Housing and Territorial Planning, Tourism, Commerce and Sports, Equality and Social Welfare, Culture, and Environment.
The Parliament of Andalusia, its Autonomic Legislative Assembly, develops and approves laws and elects and removes the President.[79] Elections to the Andalusian Parliament follow a democratic formula through which the citizens elect 109 representatives. After the approval of the Statute of Autonomy through Organic Law 6/1981 on 20 December 1981, the first elections to the autonomic parliament took place 23 May 1982. Further elections have occurred in 1986, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2000, 2004, and 2008.
The current (2008–2012) legislature includes representatives of the PSOE-A (Andalusian branch of the left-of-center PSOE), PP-A (Andalusian branch of the right-of-center PP) and IULV-CA (Andalusian branch of the leftist IU).[80]
Andalusia is traditionally divided into two historical subregions:Upper Andalusia orEastern Andalusia (Andalucía Oriental), consisting of the provinces of Almería, Granada, Jaén, and Málaga, andLower Andalusia orWestern Andalusia (Andalucía Occidental), consisting of the provinces of Cádiz, Córdoba, Huelva and Seville.
Within the various autonomous communities of Spain,comarcas are comparable toshires (or, in some countries,counties) in the English-speaking world. Unlike in some of Spain's other autonomous communities, under the original 1981 Statute of Autonomy, thecomarcas of Andalusia had no formal recognition, but, in practice, they still had informal recognition as geographic, cultural, historical, or in some cases administrative entities. The 2007 Statute of Autonomy echoes this practice, and mentionscomarcas in Article 97 of Title III, which defines the significance ofcomarcas and establishes a basis for formal recognition in future legislation.[83]
The current statutory entity that most closely resembles acomarca is themancomunidad, a freely chosen, bottom-up association of municipalities intended as an instrument of socioeconomic development and coordination between municipal governments in specific areas.[82][84]
Beyond the level of provinces, Andalusia is further divided into 774municipalities (municipios).[82] The municipalities of Andalusia are regulated by Title III of the Statute of Autonomy, Articles 91–95, which establishes the municipality as the basic territorial entity of Andalusia, each of which has legal personhood and autonomy in many aspects of its internal affairs. At the municipal level, representation, government and administration is performed by theayuntamiento (municipal government), which has competency forurban planning, community social services, supply and treatment of water, collection and treatment of waste, and promotion of tourism, culture, and sports, among other matters established by law.[85]
In conformity with the intent to devolve control as locally as possible, in many cases, separate nuclei of population within municipal borders each administer their own interests. These are variously known aspedanías ("hamlets"),villas ("villages"),aldeas (also usually rendered as "villages"), or other similar names.[82]
Andalusia ranks first by population among the 17 autonomous communities of Spain. The estimated population as of 1 January 2025 was 8,663,175. The population is concentrated mainly in the provincial capitals and along the coasts. The level of urbanization is quite high; half the population is concentrated in the 28 cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants. While the population is aging, the process of immigration is countering the inversion of thepopulation pyramid.[86]
At the end of the 20th century, Andalusia was in the last phase ofdemographic transition. Thedeath rate stagnated at around 8–9 per thousand, and the population came to be influenced mainly by birth and migration.[89]
In 1950, Andalusia had 20.04 percent of the national population of Spain. By 1981, this had declined to 17.09 percent. Although the Andalusian population was not declining in absolute terms, these relative losses were due to emigration great enough to nearly counterbalance having the highestbirth rate in Spain. Since the 1980s, this process has reversed on all counts,[90] and as of 2009, Andalusia has 17.82 percent of the Spanish population.[91]The birth rate is sharply down, as is typical in developed economies, although it has lagged behind much of the rest of the world in this respect. Furthermore, prior emigrants have been returning to Andalusia. Beginning in the 1990s, others have been immigrating in large numbers as well, as Spain has become a country of net immigration.[90]
At the beginning of the 21st century, statistics show a slight increase in the birth rate, due in large part to the higher birth rate among immigrants.[92][93] The result is that as of 2009, the trend toward rejuvenation of the population is among the strongest of any autonomous community of Spain, or of any comparable region in Europe.[91]
Evolution of the birth and death rates of Andalusia 1975–2007
At the beginning of the 21st century, the population structure of Andalusia shows a clear inversion of the population pyramid, with the largest cohorts falling between ages 25 and 50.[94] Comparison of the population pyramid in 2008 to that in 1986 shows:
A clear decrease in the population under the age of 25, due to a declining birth rate.
An increase in the adult population, as the earlier, larger cohort born in the "baby boom" of the 1960s and 1970s reach adulthood. This effect has been exacerbated by immigration: the largest contingent of immigrants are young adults.
A further increase in the adult population, and especially the older adult population, due to increasedlife expectancy.
As far as composition by sex, two aspects stand out: the higher percentage of women in the elderly population, owing to women's longer life expectancy, and, on the other hand, the higher percentage of men of working age, due in large part to a predominantly male immigrant population.[91]
In 2024, over 850,000 people (9.88%) in Andalusia were born outside of Spain. The figure is up from 2.76% in 2002 when nationalities began to be registered.[95] This is a relatively low number for a Spanish region, the national average being over three percentage points higher.
The immigrants are not evenly distributed among the Andalusian provinces. In 2022, more than 21.8% of the Almería's population was immigrant, ranking third among all provinces in Spain. From the other end, Jaén and Córdoba had barely 2.8% immigrant population each, being the Spanish provinces with the lowest foreign population in relative numbers. The predominant foreign nationalities areMoroccan (163,585, constituting 22.06 percent of the foreigners living in Andalusia) andBritish (12.43 percent across the region). When comparing world regions rather than individual countries, the single largest immigrant block isEurope, followed byAfrica andLatin America.[96] Demographically, this group has provided an important addition to the Andalusian labor force.[92][93]
Andalusia is traditionally an agricultural area, but theservice sector (particularly tourism, retail sales, and transportation) now predominates. The once booming construction sector, hit hard by the2009 recession, was also important to the region's economy. The industrial sector is less developed than most other regions in Spain.
Between 2000 and 2006 economic growth per annum was 3.72%, one of the highest in the country. Still, according to the SpanishInstituto Nacional de Estadística (INE), the GDP per capita of Andalusia (€17,401; 2006) remains the second lowest in Spain, with onlyExtremadura lagging behind.[98] TheGross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 160.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 13.4% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 20,500 euros or 68% of the EU27 average in the same year.[99]
GDP, GDP per capita, number of people in the work force, percentage of the Andalusian work force by province[100]
Theprimary sector, despite adding the least of the three sectors to the regionalGDP, remains important, especially when compared to typical developed economies. The primary sector produces 8.26 percent of regional GDP, 6.4 percent of its GVA and employs 8.19 percent of the workforce.[101][102][better source needed] In monetary terms it could be considered a rather uncompetitive sector, given its level of productivity compared to other Spanish regions.[citation needed] In addition to its numeric importance relative to other regions, agriculture and other primary sector activities have strong roots in local culture and identity.
For many centuries, agriculture dominated Andalusian society, and, with 44.3 percent of its territory cultivated and 8.4 percent of its workforce in agriculture as of 2016 it remains an integral part of Andalusia's economy.[103] However, its importance is declining, like the primary and secondary sectors generally, as the service sector is increasingly taking over.[104] The primary cultivation is dryland farming ofcereals andsunflowers without artificialirrigation, especially in the vast countryside of the Guadalquivir valley and the high plains of Granada and Almería-with a considerably lesser and more geographically focused cultivation ofbarley andoats. Using irrigation,maize,cotton andrice are also grown on the banks of the Guadalquivir andGenil.[105]
Olive orchards in province of Córdoba.
The most important tree crops areolives, especially in the Subbetic regions of the provinces of Córdoba and Jáen, where irrigated olive orchards constitute a large component of agricultural output.[106] There are extensivevineyards in various zones such asJerez de la Frontera (sherry),Condado de Huelva,Montilla-Moriles andMálaga. Fruits—mainlycitrus fruits—are grown near the banks of the Guadalquivir;almonds, which require far less water, are grown on the high plains of Granada and Almería.[107]
In monetary terms, by far the most productive and competitive agriculture in Andalusia is the intensive forced cultivation of strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other fruits grown under hothouse conditions under clear plastic, often in sandy zones, on the coasts, in Almería and Huelva.[108]
Organic farming has recently undergone rapid expansion in Andalusia, mainly for export to European markets but with increasing demand developing in Spain.[109]
Andalusia has a long tradition ofanimal husbandry andlivestock farming, but it is now restricted mainly to mountain meadows, where there is less pressure from other potential uses. Andalusians have a long and colourful history ofdog breeding that can be observed throughout the region today. The raising of livestock now plays a semi-marginal role in the Andalusian economy, constituting only 15 percent of the primary sector, half the number for Spain taken as a whole.[110]
"Extensive" raising of livestock grazes the animals on natural or cultivatedpastures, whereas "intensive" raising of livestock is based infodder rather than pasture. Although the productivity is higher than with extensive techniques, the economics are quite different. While intensive techniques now dominate in Europe and even in other regions of Spain, most of Andalusia'scattle, virtually all of itssheep andgoats, and a good portion of itspigs are raised by extensive farming in mountain pastures. This includes theBlack Iberian pigs that are the source ofJamón ibérico. Andalusia's native sheep and goats present a great economic opportunity in a Europe where animal products are generally in strong supply, but the sheep and goat meat, milk, and leather (and the products derived from these) are relatively scarce.Dogs are bred not just as companion animals, but also as herding animals used by goat and sheep herders.
Hunting remains relatively important in Andalusia, but has largely lost its character as a means of obtaining food.It is now more of a leisure activity linked to the mountain areas and complementary to forestry and the raising of livestock.[111] Dogs are frequently used as hunting companions to retrieve killed game.
The Andalusianforests are important for their extent—50 percent of the territory of Andalusia—and for other less quantifiable environmental reasons, such as their value in preventing erosion, regulating the flow of water necessary for other flora and fauna. For these reasons, there is legislation in place to protect the Andalusian forests.[112] The value of forest products as such constitutes only 2 percent of agricultural production. This comes mostly from cultivated species—eucalyptus in Huelva andpoplar in Granada—as well as naturally occurringcork oak in the Sierra Morena.[113]
Fishing is a longstanding tradition on the Andalusian coasts. Fish and other seafood have long figured prominently in the local diet and in the localgastronomic culture:fried fish (pescaito frito in local dialect), whiteprawns,almadraba tuna, among others. The Andalusian fishing fleet is Spain's second largest, afterGalicia, and Andalusia's 38 fishing ports are the most of any Spanish autonomous community.[114] Commercial fishing produces only 0.5 percent of the product of the regional primary sector by value, but there are areas where it has far greater importance. In the province of Huelva it constitutes 20 percent of the primary sector, and locally inPunta Umbría 70 percent of the work force is involved in commercial fishing.[115]
Failure to comply with fisheries laws regarding the use of trawling, urbanpollution of the seacoast, destruction of habitats by coastal construction (for example, alteration of the mouths of rivers, construction of ports), and diminution of fisheries byoverexploitation[116]have created a permanent crisis in the Andalusian fisheries, justifying attempts to convert the fishing fleet. The decrease in fish stocks has led to the rise ofaquaculture, includingfish farming both on the coasts and in the interior.[117]
Despite the general poor returns in recent years,mining retains a certain importance in Andalusia. Andalusia produces half of Spain's mining product by value. Of Andalusia's production, roughly half comes from the province of Huelva. Mining for precious metals atMinas de Riotinto in Huelva (seeRio Tinto Group) dates back to pre-Roman times; the mines were abandoned in the Middle Ages and rediscovered in 1556. Other mining activity iscoal mining in the Guadiato valley in the province of Córdoba; various metals atAznalcóllar in the province of Seville, and iron atAlquife in the province of Granada. In addition, limestone, clay, and other materials used in construction are well distributed throughout Andalusia.[118]
The Andalusian industrial sector has always been relatively small. Nevertheless, in 2007, Andalusian industry earned 11.979 million euros and employed more than 290,000 workers. This represented 9.15 percent of regional GDP, far below the 15.08 the secondary sector represents in the economy of Spain as a whole.[119] By analyzing the different subsectors of the food industry Andalusian industry accounts for more than 16% of total production. In a comparison with the Spanish economy, this subsector is virtually the only food that has some weight in the national economy with 16.16%. Lies far behind the manufacturing sector of shipping materials just over 10% of the Spanish economy. Companies like Cruzcampo (Heineken Group), Puleva, Domecq, Santana Motors or Renault-Andalusia, are exponents of these two subsectors. Of note is the Andalusian aeronautical sector, which is second nationally only behind Madrid and represents approximately 21% of total turnover in terms of employment, highlighting companies likeAirbus,Airbus Military, or the newly formed Aerospace Alestis. On the contrary it is symptomatic of how little weight the regional economy in such important sectors such as textiles or electronics at the national level.[citation needed]
Andalusian industry is also characterized by a specialization in industrial activities of transforming raw agricultural and mineral materials. This is largely done by small enterprises without the public or foreign investment more typical of a high level of industrialization.
Castle of Sancti Petri, located inSan Fernando, Cádiz. One of the largest components of the service sector is "sun and sand" tourism.
In recent decades the Andalusian tertiary (service) sector has grown greatly, and has come to constitute the majority of the regional economy, as is typical of contemporary economies in developed nations.[120][104] In 1975 the service sector produced 51.1 percent of local GDP and employed 40.8 percent of the work force. In 2007, this had risen to 67.9 percent of GDP and 66.42 percent of jobs. This process of "tertiarization" of the economy has followed a somewhat unusual course in Andalusia.[121] This growth occurred somewhat earlier than in most developed economies and occurred independently of the local industrial sector. There were two principal reasons that "tertiarization" followed a different course in Andalusia than elsewhere:
1. Andalusian capital found it impossible to compete in the industrial sector against more developed regions, and was obligated to invest in sectors that were easier to enter.
2. The absence of an industrial sector that could absorb displaced agricultural workers and artisans led to the proliferation of services with rather low productivity. This unequal development compared to other regions led to a hypertrophied and unproductive service sector, which has tended to reinforce underdevelopment, because it has not led to large accumulations of capital.[121][122]
Due in part to the relatively mild winter and spring climate, the south of Spain is attractive to overseas visitors–especially tourists from Northern Europe. While inland areas such asJaén,Córdoba and the hill villages and towns remain relatively untouched by tourism, the coastal areas of Andalusia have heavy visitor traffic for much of the year.
Among the autonomous communities, Andalusia is second only toCatalonia in tourism, with nearly 30 million visitors every year. The principal tourist destinations in Andalusia are theCosta del Sol and (secondarily) theSierra Nevada. As discussedabove, Andalusia is one of the sunniest and warmest places in Europe, making it a center of "sun and sand" tourism,[123] but not only it. Around 70 percent of the lodging capacity and 75 percent of the nights booked in Andalusian hotels are in coastal municipalities. The largest number of tourists come in August—13.26 percent of the nights booked throughout the year—and the smallest number in December—5.36 percent.
On the west (Atlantic) coast are theCosta de la Luz (provinces of Huelva and Cádiz), and on the east (Mediterranean) coast, theCosta del Sol (provinces of Cádiz y Málaga),Costa Tropical (Granada and part of Almería) and theCosta de Almería. In 2004, theBlue Flag beach program of the non-profitFoundation for Environmental Education recognized 66 Andalusian beaches and 18 pleasure craft ports as being in a good state of conservation in terms of sustainability, accessibility, and quality.[citation needed] Nonetheless, the level of tourism on the Andalusian coasts has been high enough to have a significant environmental impact, and other organizations—such as the SpanishEcologists in Action (Ecologistas en Acción) with their description of "Black Flag beaches"[124] orGreenpeace[125]—have expressed the opposite sentiment. Still,Hotel chains such as Fuerte Hotels have ensured that sustainability within the tourism industry is one of their highest priorities.[126][127][128]
Together with "sand and sun" tourism, there has also been a strong increase in nature tourism in the interior, as well ascultural tourism, sport tourism, and conventions.[citation needed] One example of sport and nature tourism is the ski resort atSierra Nevada National Park.
As for cultural tourism, there are hundreds of cultural tourist destinations: cathedrals, castles, forts, monasteries, and historic city centers and a wide variety of museums.
It can be highlighted that Spain has seven of its 42 cultural UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites in Andalucia:
There are numerous other significant museums around the region, both of paintings and of archeological artifacts such as gold jewelry, pottery and other ceramics, and other works that demonstrate the region's artisanal traditions.
The unemployment rate was 16.1% in the first quarter of 2025, the lowest in 17 years.[131] Although it has been declining sharply, Andalusian unemployment rate remains as one of the highest among the Spanish autonomous communities.[132]
As in any modern society, transport systems are an essential structural element of the functioning of Andalusia. The transportation network facilitates territorial coordination, economic development and distribution, and intercity transportation.[133]
In urban transport, underdeveloped public transport systems put pedestrian traffic and other non-motorized traffic are at a disadvantage compared to the use of private vehicles. Several Andalusian capitals—Córdoba, Granada and Seville—have recently been trying to remedy this by strengthening their public transport systems and providing a better infrastructure for the use ofbicycles.[134] There are now threerapid transit systems operating in Andalucia – theSeville Metro,Málaga Metro andGranada Metro.Cercaníascommuter rail networks operate in Seville, Málaga and Cádiz.
Sevilla-Santa Justa railway station
For over a century, the conventional rail network has been centralized on the regional capital, Seville, and the national capital, Madrid; in general, there are no direct connections between provincial capitals. High-speedAVE trains run from Madrid via Córdoba toSeville andMálaga, from which a branch fromAntequera to Granada opened in 2019. Further AVE routes are under construction.[135] The Madrid-Córdoba-Seville route was the first high-velocity route in Spain (operating since 1992). Other principal routes are the one from Algeciras to Seville and fromAlmería via Granada to Madrid.
Most of the principal roads have been converted intolimited access highways known asautovías. The Autovía del Este (Autovía A-4) runs from Madrid through the Despeñaperros Natural Park, then via Bailén, Córdoba, and Seville to Cádiz, and is part ofEuropean route E05 in theInternational E-road network. The other main road in the region is the portion ofEuropean route E15, which runs as the Autovia del Mediterráneo along the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Parts of this constitute thesuperhighwayAutopista AP-7, while in other areas it isAutovía A-7. Both of these roads run generally east–west, although the Autovía A-4 turns to the south in western Andalusia.
Other first-order roads include theAutovía A-48 roughly along the Atlantic coast from Cádiz to Algeciras, continuing European route E05 to meet up withEuropean route E15; the Autovía del Quinto Centenario (Autovía A-49), which continues west from Seville (where the Autovía A-4 turns toward the south) and goes on to Huelva and into Portugal asEuropean route E01; the Autovía Ruta de la Plata (Autovía A-66),European route E803, which roughly corresponds to the ancient Roman 'Silver Route' from the mines of northern Spain, and runs north from Seville; the Autovía de Málaga (Autovía A-45), which runs south from Córdoba to Málaga; and the Autovía de Sierra Nevada (Autovía A-44), part ofEuropean route E902, which runs south from Jaén to the Mediterranean coast at Motril.
As of 2008 Andalusia has six public airports, all of which can legally handle international flights. TheMálaga Airport is dominant, handling 60.67 percent of passengers[136] and 85 percent of its international traffic.[137] TheSeville Airport handles another 20.12 percent of traffic, and theJerez Airport 7.17 percent, so that these three airports account for 87.96 percent of traffic.[136]
Málaga Airport is the international airport that offers a wide variety of international destinations. It has a daily link with twenty cities in Spain and over a hundred cities in Europe (mainly in Great Britain, Central Europe and the Nordic countries but also the main cities of Eastern Europe:Moscow,Saint Petersburg,Sofia,Riga orBucharest), North Africa, Middle East (Riyadh,Jeddah andKuwait) and North America (New York,Toronto andMontreal).
The main ports are Algeciras (for freight and container traffic) and Málaga for cruise ships. Algeciras is Spain's leading commercial port, with 60,000,000 tonnes (66,000,000 short tons) of cargo in 2004.[138] Seville has Spain's only commercial river port. Other significant commercial ports in Andalusia are the ports of theBay of Cádiz, Almería and Huelva.
The Council of Government has approved a Plan of Infrastructures for the Sustainability of Transport in Andalusia (PISTA) 2007–2013, which plans an investment of 30 billion euros during that period.[139]
Andasol solar power facility north of Sierra Nevada
The lack of high-qualityfossil fuels in Andalusia has led to a strong dependency onpetroleum imports. Still, Andalusia has a strong potential for the development ofrenewable energy, above allwind energy. The Andalusian Energy Agency established in 2005 by the autonomous government, is a new governmental organ charged with the development of energy policy and provision of a sufficient supply of energy for the community.[133]
As throughout Spain, basic education in Andalusia is free and compulsory. Students are required to complete ten years of schooling, and may not leave school before the age of 16, after which students may continue on to abaccalaureate, to intermediatevocational education, to intermediate-level schooling in arts and design, to intermediate sports studies, or to the working world.
As of 2009,[update] there were ten private or public universities in Andalusia. University studies are structured in cycles, awarding degrees based onECTS credits in accord with theBologna process, which the Andalusian universities are adopting in accord with the other universities of theEuropean Higher Education Area.
Responsibility for healthcare jurisdictions devolved from the Spanish government to Andalusia with the enactment of the Statute of Autonomy. Thus, theAndalusian Health Service (Servicio Andaluz de Salud) currently manages almost all public health resources of the Community, with such exceptions as health resources for prisoners and members of the military, which remain under central administration.
According to the Outreach Program for Science in Andalusia, Andalusia contributes 14 percent of Spain's scientific production behind only Madrid and Catalonia among the autonomous communities,[144] even though regional investment inresearch and development (R&D) as a proportion ofGDP is below the national average.[145] The lack of research capacity in business and the low participation of the private sector in research has resulted in R&D taking place largely in the public sector.
The Council of Innovation, Science and Business is the organ of the autonomous government responsible for universities, research, technological development, industry, and energy. The council coordinates and initiates scientific and technical innovation through specialized centers an initiatives such as theAndalusian Center for Marine Science and Technology (Centro Andaluz de Ciencia y Tecnología Marina) andTechnological Corporation of Andalusia (Corporación Tecnológica de Andalucía).
Within the private sphere, although also promoted by public administration, technology parks have been established throughout the Community, such as theTechnological Park of Andalucia (Parque Tecnológico de Andalucía) inCampanillas on the outskirts of Málaga, andCartuja 93 in Seville. Some of these parks specialize in specific sector, such asAerópolis [es] inaerospace orGeolit [es] infood technology. The Andalusian government deployed 600,000Ubuntu desktop computers in their schools.
Andalusia has international, national, regional, and local media organizations, which are active gathering and disseminating information (as well as creating and disseminating entertainment).
The most notable is the publicRadio y Televisión de Andalucía (RTVA), broadcasting on two regional television channels,Canal Sur andCanal Sur 2, four regional radio stations, Canal Sur Radio, Canal Fiesta Radio, Radio Andalucía Información and Canal Flamenco Radio, as well as various digital signals, most notablyCanal Sur Andalucía available oncable TV throughout Spain.[146]
Different newspapers are published for each Andalusian provincial capital,comarca, or important city. Often, the same newspaper organization publishes different local editions with much shared content, with differentmastheads and different local coverage. There are also popular papers distributed without charge, again typically with local editions that share much of their content.
No single Andalusian newspaper is distributed throughout the region, not even with local editions. In eastern Andalusia theDiario Ideal has editions tailored for the provinces of Almería, Granada, and Jaén.Grupo Joly is based in Andalucia, backed by Andalusian capital, and publishes eight daily newspapers there. Efforts to create a newspaper for the entire autonomous region have not succeeded (the most recent as of 2009 was theDiario de Andalucía). The national press (El País,El Mundo,ABC, etc.) include sections or editions specific to Andalusia.
Canal Sur 2 first broadcast 5 June 1998. Programming focuses on culture, sports, and programs for children and youth.
In addition, RTVA also operates the national and international cable channel Canal Sur Andalucía, which first broadcast in 1996 as Andalucía Televisión.
The patrimony of Andalusia has been shaped by its particular history and geography, as well as its complex flows of population. Andalusia has been home to a succession of peoples and civilizations, many very different from one another, each impacting the settled inhabitants. The ancientIberians were followed byCelts,Phoenicians and other Eastern Mediterranean traders,Romans,migrating Germanic tribes,Arabs or Berbers. All have shaped the Spanish patrimony in Andalusia, which was already diffused widely in the literary and pictorial genre of thecostumbrismo andaluz.[147][148]
In the 19th century, Andalusian culture came to be widely viewed as the Spanish culturepar excellence, in part thanks to the perceptions ofromantic travellers. In the words ofOrtega y Gasset:
Andalusia, which has never shown the swagger nor petulancy of particularism; that has never pretended to the status of a State apart, is, of all the Spanish regions, the one that possesses a culture most radically its own. Throughout the 19th century, Spain has submitted itself to the hegemonic influence of Andalusia. That century began with theCortes of Cádiz; it ended with the assassination ofCánovas del Castillo,malagueño [from Málaga], and the exaltation ofSilvela, no lessmalagueño. The dominant ideas have an Andalusian accent. One paints Andalusia: a roof-terrace, some flowerpots, blue sky. One reads southern authors. One speaks at all times of the "land of the Most Holy Virgin Mary". The thief from the Sierra Morena and the smuggler are national heroes. All Spain feels its existence justified by the honor of having on its flanks the Andalusian piece of the planet. Around 1900, like so many other things, this changes. The North sits up.[149]
Some of the greatest architecture in Andalusia was developed across several centuries and civilizations, and the region is particularly famous for its Islamic and Moorish architecture, which includes theAlhambra complex,Generalife[151] and theMosque-Cathedral of Córdoba.
The traditional architecture of Andalusia retains itsRoman with Arab influences brought byMuslims, with a marked Mediterranean character strongly conditioned by the climate. Traditional urban houses are constructed with shared walls to minimize exposure to high exterior temperatures. Solid exterior walls arepainted withlime to minimize the heating effects of the sun. In accord with the climate and tradition of each area, the roofs may beterraces or tiled in the Romanimbrex and tegula style. One of the most characteristic elements (and one of the most obviously influenced by Roman architecture) is the interiorpatio orcourtyard; the patios of Córdoba are particularly famous. Other characteristic elements are decorative (and functional)wrought irongratings and thetiles known asazulejos. Landscaping—both for common private homes and homes on a more lavish scale—also carries on older traditions, with plants, flowers, and fountains, pools, and streams of water. Beyond these general elements, there are also specific local architectural styles, such as theflat roofs, roofed chimneys, and radically extendedbalconies of theAlpujarra, the cave dwellings ofGuadix and of Granada'sSacromonte, or the traditional architecture of theMarquisate of Zenete.[152]
Besides the architecture of the cities, there is also much outstanding rural architecture: houses, as well as ranch and farm buildings anddog houses.[155]
Non-religious sculpture has also existed in Andalusia since antiquity. A fine example from the Renaissance era is the decoration of theCasa de Pilatos in Seville. Nonetheless, non-religious sculpture played a relatively minor role until such 19th-century sculptors asAntonio Susillo [es].
La Fuensanta, considered a quintessential rendition of Andalusian beauty.[158]
As in sculpture, there wereSevillian [es] and theGranadan [es] schools of painting. The former has figured prominently in the history of Spanish art since the 15th century and includes such important artists asZurbarán,Velázquez andMurillo, as well as art theorists such asFrancisco Pacheco. TheMuseum of Fine Arts of Seville and thePrado[159] contain numerous representative works of the Sevillian school of painting.
Málaga also has been and is an important artistic center. Its most illustrious representative wasPablo Picasso, one of the most influential artists of the 20th century. The city has aMuseum andNatal House Foundation, dedicated to the painter.
Andalusia plays a significant role in the history of Spanish-language literature, although not all of the important literature associated with Andalusia was written in Spanish. Before 1492, there was the literature written inAndalusian Arabic. Hispano-Arabic authors native to the region includeIbn Hazm,Ibn Zaydún,Ibn Tufail,Al-Mu'tamid,Ibn al-Khatib,Ibn al-Yayyab, andIbn Zamrak[161] or Andalusian Hebrew poets asSolomon ibn Gabirol.Ibn Quzman, of the 12th century, crafted poems in the colloquial Andalusian language.[162]
As in most regions of Spain, the principal form of popular verse is theromance, although there are alsostrophes specific to Andalusia, such as thesoleá or thesoleariya [es;it]. Ballads, lullabies, street vendor's cries, nursery rhymes, and work songs are plentiful.
The music of Andalusia includes traditional and contemporary music, folk and composed music, and ranges fromflamenco torock. Conversely, certain metric, melodic and harmonic characteristics are considered Andalusian even when written or performed by musicians from elsewhere.
Flamenco, perhaps the most characteristically Andalusian genre of music and dance, originated in the 18th century, but is based in earlier forms from the region. The influence of the traditional music and dance of theRomani people or Gypsies is particularly clear. The genre embraces distinct vocal (cante flamenco), guitar (toque flamenco), and dance (baile flamenco) styles.[165]
The Andalusian Statute of Autonomy reflects the cultural importance of flamenco in its Articles 37.1.18 and 68:
Guiding principles of public policy: 18th The preservation and enhancement of the cultural, historic and artistic heritage of Andalusia, especially flamenco.[166]
Also within the Autonomous Community (of Andalucia) is the exclusive competence in knowledge, conservation, research, training, promotion and dissemination of flamenco as a unique element of the Andalusian cultural heritage.[167]
The portrayal of Andalusia in film is often reduced to archetypes: flamenco,bullfighting, Catholic pageantry,brigands, the property-rich and cash-poorseñorito andaluz and emigrants. These images particularly predominated from the 1920s through the 1960s, and helped to consolidate a clichéd image of the region. In a very different vein, the province of Almería was the filming location for manyWesterns, especially (but by no means exclusively) the Italian-directedSpaghetti Westerns. During the dictatorship ofFrancisco Franco, this was the extent of the film industry in Andalusia.
Counting together feature films, documentaries, television programs, music videos etc., Andalusia has boomed from 37 projects shooting in 1999 to 1,054 in 2007, with the figure for 2007 including 19 feature films.[174] Although feature films are the most prestigious, commercials and television are currently more economically important to the region.
Each sub-region in Andalusia has its own unique customs that represent a fusion of Catholicism and local folklore. Cities like Almería have been influenced historically by bothGranada and Murcia in the use of traditional head coverings. Thesombrero de Labrador, a worker's hat made of black velvet, is a signature style of the region.
In Cádiz, traditional costumes with rural origins are worn at bullfights and at parties on the large estates. Thetablao flamenco dance and the accompanyingcante jondo vocal style originated in Andalusia and traditionally most often performed by the gypsy (Gitanos). One of the most distinctive cultural events in Andalusia is theRomería de El Rocío in May. It consists of a pilgrimage to theHermitage of El Rocío in the countryside nearAlmonte, in honor of theVirgin of El Rocío, an image of theVirgin and Child.[175][176] In recent times theRomería has attracted roughly a million pilgrims each year.[177]
InJaén, thesaeta is a revered form of Spanish religious song, whose form and style has evolved over many centuries. Saetas evoke strong emotion and are sung most often during public processions.Verdiales, based upon thefandango, are a flamenco music style and song form originating in Almogia, near Málaga. For this reason, the Verdiales are sometimes known asFandangos de Málaga. The region also has a rich musical tradition of flamenco songs, orpalos calledcartageneras. Seville celebratesSemana Santa, one of the better known religious events within Spain. During the festival, religious fraternities dress as penitents and carry large floats of lifelike wooden sculptures representing scenes of thePassion, and images of the Virgin Mary.Sevillanas, a type of old folk music sung and written in Seville and still very popular, are performed in fairs and festivals, along with an associated dance for the music, theBaile por sevillanas. All the different regions of Andalusia have developed their own distinctive customs, but all share a connectedness to Catholicism as developed during baroqueSpain society.[178]
Most Spanish dialects in Spain differentiate between the sound of "z" and "c" (before e and i), pronounced/θ/, and that of "s", pronounced/s/. This distinction is lost in many Andalusian-speaking areas. In some mostly southerly areas, shown here in red, all three letters are pronounced/θ/, which is known asCeceo. In other areas, all three letters are pronounced (/s/), which is known asSeseo. Still other areas retain the distinction found elsewhere in Spain. Note that the city ofCádiz has seseo.
Andalusian Spanish is one of the most widely spoken forms ofSpanish in Spain, and because of emigration patterns was very influential onAmerican Spanish. Rather than a single dialect, it is really a range of dialects sharing some common features; among these isthe retention of moreArabic words than elsewhere in Spain,[179][180] as well as somephonological differences compared withStandard Spanish. Theisoglosses that mark the borders of Andalusian Spanish overlap to form a network of divergent boundaries, so there is no clear border for the linguistic region.[181]A fringe movement promoting an Andalusian language independent from Spanish exists.[182]
Procession with statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary of the Love of Saint Ferdinand (Maria santísima del amor de San Fernando), Cádiz.
The territory now known as Andalusia fell within the sphere of influence of ancient Mediterraneanmythological beliefs. Phoenician colonization brought the cults ofBaal andMelqart; the latter lasted into Roman times asHercules, mythical founder of both Cádiz and Seville. TheIslote de Sancti Petri held the supposed tomb of Hercules, with representations of hisTwelve labors; the region was the traditional site of the tenth labor, obtaining the cattle of the monsterGeryon. Traditionally, thePillars of Hercules flank theStrait of Gibraltar. Clearly, the European pillar is theRock of Gibraltar; the African pillar was presumably eitherMonte Hacho inCeuta orJebel Musa inMorocco. TheRoman road that led from Cádiz to Rome was known by several names, one of them beingVia Herculea [fr;it;sv], Hercules route returning from his tenth labor. The presentcoat of arms of Andalusia shows Hercules between two lions, with two pillars behind these figures.
Roman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in Andalusia. In 2012, the proportion ofAndalusians that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 78.8%.[183] Spanish Catholic religion constitute a traditional vehicle of Andalusian cultural cohesion,[184] and the principal characteristic of the local popular form of Catholicism is devotion to theVirgin Mary; Andalusia is sometimes known asla tierra de María Santísima ("the land of Most Holy Mary").[185] Also characteristic are the processions duringHoly Week, in which thousands ofpenitents (known asnazarenos) singsaetas. Andalusia is the site of suchpilgrim destinations as theSantuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza [ca;de;es;it] inAndújar and theHermitage of El Rocío inAlmonte.
While some trace the lineage of theSpanish Fighting Bull back to Roman times, today's fighting bulls in the Iberian peninsula and in the formerSpanish Empire trace back to Andalusia in the 15th and 16th centuries.[186] Andalusia remains a center of bull-rearing andbullfighting: its 227fincas de ganado where fighting bulls are raised cover 146,917 hectares (363,040 acres).[186] In the year 2000, Andalusia's roughly 100bullrings hosted 1,139corridas.[186]
The oldest bullring still in use in Spain is theneoclassicalPlaza de toros inRonda, built in 1784. The Andalusian Autonomous Government sponsors theRutas de Andalucía taurina, a touristic route through the region centered on bullfighting.
Festivals of a religious nature are a deep Andalusian tradition and are met with great popular fervor. There are numerous major festivals duringHoly Week. An annual pilgrimage brings a million visitors to the Hermitage of El Rocío in Almonte (population 16,914 in 2008); similarly large crowds visit the Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza in Andújar every April.
Other important festivals are theCarnival of Cádiz and theFiesta de las Cruces orCruz de mayo in Granada and Córdoba; in Córdoba this is combined with a competition for among thepatios (courtyards) of the city.
Andalusia hosts an annual festival for the dance of flamenco in the summer-time.
Fried fish—pescaíto frito—andseafood are common on the coast and also eaten well into the interior under coastal influence.Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) from theAlmadraba areas of theGulf of Cádiz,prawns fromSanlúcar de Barrameda (known aslangostino de Sanlúcar), and deepwater rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) from Huelva are all highly prized. Fishing for the transparent goby orchanquete (Aphia minuta), a once-popular small fish from Málaga, is now banned because the techniques used to catch them trap too many immature fish ofother species.[188]
The mountainous regions of the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada produce curedhams, notably includingjamón serrano andjamón ibérico. These come from two different types of pig, (jamón serrano from white pigs, the more expensivejamón ibérico from theBlack Iberian pig). There are severaldenominaciones de origen, each with its own specifications including in just whichmicroclimate region ham of a particular denomination must be cured.Plato alpujarreño is another mountain specialty, a dish combining ham, sausage, sometimes other pork, egg, potatoes, and olive oil.
Cereal-based dishes includemigas de harina in eastern Andalusia (a similar dish tocouscous rather than the fried breadcrumb basedmigas elsewhere in Spain) and a sweeter, more aromatic porridge calledpoleá in western Andalusia.Vegetables form the basis of such dishes asalboronía (similar toratatouille) and the chopped salad known aspipirrana orpiriñaca. Hot and cold soups based in olive oil, garlic, bread, tomato and peppers includegazpacho,salmorejo,porra antequerana,ajo caliente,sopa campera, or—using almonds instead of tomato—ajoblanco.[189]
The traditional dress of 18th-century Andalusia was strongly influenced bymajismo within the context ofcasticismo (purism, traditionalism, authenticity). The archetype of themajo andmaja was that of a bold, pure Spaniard from a lower-class background, somewhat flamboyant in his or her style of dress. This emulation of lower-class dress also extended to imitating the clothes of brigands andRomani ("Gypsy") women.[193]
Andalusia is also known for its dogs, particularly theAndalusian Hound, which was originally bred in the region. Dogs, not just andalusian hounds, are very popular in the region.
In Andalusia, as throughout Spain,football is the predominant sport. Introduced to Spain byBritish men who worked in mining forRio Tinto in the province of Huelva, the sport soon became popular with the local population. As Spain's oldest existing football club,Recreativo de Huelva, founded 1889, is known asEl Decano ("the Dean").[196]
TheAndalusia autonomous football team is not in any league, and plays onlyfriendly matches. In recent years, they have played mostly during the Christmas break of the football leagues. They play mostly against national teams from other countries, but would not be eligible for international league play, where Spain is represented by a single national team.
Andalusia's strongest showing in sports has been intable tennis. There are two professional teams:Cajasur Priego TM andCaja Granada TM, the latter being Spain's leading table tennis team, with more than 20 league championships in nearly consecutive years and 14 consecutive Copas del Rey, dominating theLiga ENEBÉ. Cajasur is also one of the league's leading teams.[200][citation needed]
Seville has been a pre-candidate to host the Summer Olympics in two occasions, 2004 and 2008, and Granada has been a pre-candidate to host the winter Olympics; neither has ever succeeded in its candidature. The ski resort ofSierra Nevada, near Granada, has however hosted the1996 Alpine World Ski Championships, and Granada hosted the2015 Winter Universiade.
^Boletín Oficial del Estado of Spain, n. 68 of 2007/03/20, p. 11872.Archived 9 June 2011 at theWayback Machine Estatuto de Autonomía de Andalucía. Artículo 1: "Andalucía, como nacionalidad histórica y en el ejercicio del derecho de autogobierno que reconoce la Constitución, se constituye en Comunidad Autónoma en el marco de la unidad de la nación española y conforme al artículo 2 de la Constitución."
^abBossong, Georg (2002). Restle, David; Zaefferer, Dietmar (eds.)."Der Name al-Andalus: neue Überlegungen zu einem alten Problem" [The Name al-Andalus: Revisiting an Old Problem](PDF).Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Sounds and systems: studies in structure and change. (in German).141. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton: 149.ISSN1861-4302. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 27 June 2008. Retrieved8 September 2013.Only a few years after the Islamic conquest of Spain,Al-Andalus appears in coin inscriptions as the Arabic equivalent ofHispania. The traditionally held view that the etymology of this name has to do with the Vandals is shown to have no serious foundation. The phonetic, morphosyntactic, and also historical problems connected with this etymology are too numerous. Moreover, the existence of this name in various parts of central and northern Spain proves thatAl-Andalus cannot be derived from thisGermanic tribe. It was the original name of the Punta Marroquí cape near Tarifa; very soon, it became generalized to designate the whole Peninsula. Undoubtedly, the name is of Pre-Indo-European origin. The parts of this compound (anda andluz) are frequent in the indigenous toponymy of the Iberian Peninsula.
^abDomínguez Ortiz, Antonio (1976).La identidad andaluza (in Spanish). Granada Puzada: Universidad de Granada.
^Ladero Quesada, Miguel Ángel (1867).Sobre la génesis de la identidad andaluza. Andalucía entre Oriente y Occidente (1236–1492) (in Spanish). Córdoba (Diputación Provincial) Actas del V Coloquio de Historia Medieval de Andalucía.
^For example,Pablo de Olavide wasIntendente del Ejército de los cuatro reinos de Andalucía, "Intendant of the Army of the four kingdoms of Andalusia".BiografíaArchived 1 January 2010 at theWayback Machine, Fundación Pablo de Olavide. Retrieved 7 December 2009.
^In Gelo del Cabildo's 1751Respuestas generales, part of the write-up of the censusCatastro of Ensenada, José María de Mendoza y Guzmán is described asvisitador general of theRentas Provinciales de los cuatro Reinos de Andalucía. Seethe digitization of the relevant documentArchived 13 May 2007 at theWayback Machine on the site of the Spanish Ministry of Culture. Enter "Gelo" in the search box "Buscador Localidades" and look at image number 3.
^abEl Manifiesto andalucista de Córdoba describió a Andalucía como realidad nacional en 1919, cuyo espíritu los andaluces encauzaron plenamente a través del proceso de autogobierno recogido en nuestra Carta Magna. En 1978 los andaluces dieron un amplio respaldo al consenso constitucional. Hoy, la Constitución, en su artículo 2, reconoce a Andalucía como una nacionalidad en el marco de la unidad indisoluble de la nación española.Andalusian Statute of Autonomy on Wikisource, in Spanish.
^Noble, John; Forsyth, Susan; Maric, Vesna (2007).Andalucia. Lonely Planet. p. 77.ISBN978-1-74059-973-3.Archived from the original on 14 January 2024. Retrieved11 December 2009.
^Domínguez Ortiz, Antonio (1976).La identidad andaluza (in Spanish). Granada: Universidad de Granada.hay que buscar la esencia de Andalucía en su realidad geográfica, de una parte, y de otra, en la conciencia de sus habitantes. Desde el punto de vista geográfico, el conjunto de las tierras meridionales es demasiado amplio y variado para englobarlas a todas en una unidad. En realidad hay no dos, sino tres Andalucías: la Sierra Morena, el Valle y la Penibética
^abAEMET (Agencia Estatal de Meteorología)."Valores extremos". Archived fromthe original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved4 October 2008.
^Capel Molina, J.J. (1995)Mapa pluviométrico de España Peninsular y Baleares (en el periodo internacional 1961-1990) Investigaciones Geográficas nº 13: 29-466ISSN 0213-4691pdf Idioma: español. Acceso: 3 July 2009.
^Moreira, J.M. (2003). "Las grandes unidades del relieve andaluz".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Ojeda, J. (2003). "espn".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Ibarra, P. (2003). "Las formaciones vegetales de Andalucía".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Rubio, J.M. (2003). "La fauna andaluza".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Mulero, A. (2003). "Los espacios protegidos en Andalucía".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Junta de Andalucía."Asamblea de Parlamentarios para debatir el Estatuto de Autonomía". Archived fromthe original on 9 February 2007. Retrieved12 August 2008....identidad histórica, en el autogobierno que la Constitución permite a toda nacionalidad, en plena igualdad al resto de nacionalidades y regiones que compongan España, y con un poder que emana de la Constitución y el pueblo andaluz, reflejado en su Estatuto de Autonomía
^Tít. III. Art. 97. Comarcas – Estatuto de Autonomía de Andalucía 2007: :"1. La comarca se configura como la agrupación voluntaria de municipios limítrofes con características geográficas, económicas, sociales e históricas afines. 2. Por ley del Parlamento de Andalucía podrá regularse la creación de comarcas, que establecerá, también, sus competencias. Se requerirá en todo caso el acuerdo de los Ayuntamientos afectados y la aprobación del Consejo de Gobierno."
^MancomunidadesArchived 1 July 2010 at theWayback Machine (map), dgal.map.es. You can click the map to see themancomunidades of each individual province.
^Inversion of thepopulation pyramid is a process by which the number of older people exceeds the number of younger people. This often occurs in developed countries as birth rates decline.
^Pozuelo, I. (2003). "Características del desarrollo urbano reciente en Andalucía. El siglo XX".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^abLlanes, G. (1999). "La dinámica de la población en Andalucía: transición y cambios en el siglo XX".Boletín económico de Andalucía (in Spanish) (25):129–152.ISSN0212-6621.
^abcFernández, V.M. (2003). "Geografía de la población".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^abAA.VV (2004). "Indicadores sociales e inserción laboral de la población extranjera en España y Andalucía".Portularia: Revista de Trabajo Social (in Spanish).4:51–60.hdl:10272/211.ISSN1578-0236.
^abUrdiales, M.E.; Menéndez, M. (2005). "La Población Extranjera en Andalucía".Cuadernos geográficos de la Universidad de Granada (in Spanish) (36):169–184.ISSN0210-5462.
^Del Valle, C. (2005). "El envejecimiento demográfico en Andalucía y las características sociodemográficas de la población mayor de 64 años".Papers de Demografia (in Spanish) (255).
^Naranjo, J. (2003). "Cultivos y aprovechamientos en Andalucía".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^García, A. (2003). "La agricultura litorial".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Silva, R. (2003). "Ganadería y sistemas ganaderos".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^López, A. (2003). "La caza en Andalucía".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Araque, E. (2003). "Los espacios forestales andaluces.".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Suárez, J.L.; Rodríguez, J.A. (2003). "La pesca en Andalucía".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Carabaca, I. (2003). "La terciarización de la economía andaluza".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Delgado Cabeza, Manuel (1981).Dependencia y marginación de la economía andaluza (in Spanish). Córdoba: Publicaciones del Monte de Piedad, Caja de Ahorros.ISBN84-7231-613-0.
^Fernández, A. (2003). "Actividades y espacios turísticos".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Decreto 553/1967, de 2 de marzo, por el que se declara conjunto histórico artístico el sector denominado "Lugares Colombinos" en la provincia de Huelva. He was laid to rest in Seville Cathedral.BOE nº 69 de 22 March 1967.Archived 27 September 2007 at theWayback Machine
^abPozuelo, I. (2003). "Los sistemas de trasporte, las infraestructuras y el territorio".Geografía de Andalucía (Coor. López Antonio) (in Spanish). Barcelona: Ariel Geografía.ISBN84-344-3476-8.
^Cañavate, Jose Luis; Corral, Carlos (2004).La bicicleta como medio de transporte en Andalucía (in Spanish). Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía.
^Barragán Muñoz, Juan Manuel; Chica Ruiz, Adolfo; Pérez Cayeiro, Maria Luisa (2008). "3".Propuesta de Estrategia Andaluza de Gestión Integrada de Zonas Costeras (in Spanish). Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía. p. 255.ISBN978-84-96776-06-7.
^Plan Andaluz de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación. PAIDI. 1 May 2005.
^Andalucía Comunidad Cultural."Medios de comunicación en Red Andaluza". Archived fromthe original on 15 October 2008. Retrieved8 October 2008. That web page gives a rather complete listing of Andalusian media organizations.
^Siguan, M. (1969). "Nueva teoría de Andalucía".Revista de Estudios Agrosociales (in Spanish) (69):7–24.hdl:2445/21886.ISSN0034-8155.
^Gómez, P. (1982). "Cuestiones sobre la identidad cultural de Andalucía".Gazeta de antropología (in Spanish) (1).ISSN0214-7564.
^García Vázquez, C. (2005). "Apuntes para una breve historia de la arquitectura moderna en Andalucía".Revista de historia y teoría de la arquitectura (in Spanish) (6–7):119–138.ISSN1576-5628.
^Galera, P.A. (2007). "Arquitectura y ciudad en la Andalucía del barroco".Andalucía Barroca: exposición itinerante (in Spanish). Junta de Andalucía, Consejería de Cultura. pp. 62–81.ISBN978-84-8266-725-6.
^Torices, N.; Zurita, E. (2002).Cortijos, haciendas y lagares: arquitectura de las grandes explotaciones agrarias de Andalucía. Provincia de Granada (in Spanish). Córdoba: Ediciones Ilustres.ISBN84-8095-305-5.
^VV.AA. (1990).Escultura ibérica en el Museo Provincial de Jaén (in Spanish). Consejería de Cultura de la Junta de Andalucía.ISBN84-86944-04-X.
^Aroca, F. (1997). "Aportaciones al estudio del retablo del siglo XVIII en la Baja Andalucía".Laboratorio de Arte: Revista del Departamento de Historia del Arte (in Spanish) (10):233–250.ISSN1130-5762.
^Bermejo, E.; Valdivieso, E. (1988). "Historia de la pintura sevillana, siglos XIII al XX. Sevilla, 1986 (Book Review)".Archivo español de arte (in Spanish).61 (241):89–90.ISSN0004-0428.
^From Article 37.1.18 of the Andalusian Statute of Autonomy:Principios rectores de las políticas públicas: 18º La conservación y puesta en valor del patrimonio cultural, histórico y artístico de Andalucía, especialmente del flamenco.
^From Article 68 of the Andalusian Statute of Autonomy:Corresponde asimismo a la Comunidad Autónoma (Andaluza) la competencia exclusiva en materia de conocimiento, conservación, investigación, formación, promoción y difusión del flamenco como elemento singular del patrimonio cultural andaluz.
^Fernández-Sevilla, Julio (1976). "Objetividad y subjetividad. Datos para el nombre de un dialecto".Revista de dialectología y tradiciones populares.32 (1/4):173–184.ISSN0034-7981.
^Jiménez, C.; López, B. (2000).Gastronomía andaluza y dieta mediterránea (in Spanish). Málaga: Miramar.ISBN84-922831-9-X.
^Resolución del 20 de junio de 1988 de la Dirección General de Pesca, por la que se establece una pesca indefinida para la pesca del Aphia minuta (chanquete) y similares (BOJA nº57 de 19 de julio de 1988).
^Iglesias Rodríguez, Juan José (coor.) (1995).Historia y cultura del vino en Andalucía (in Spanish). Universidad de Sevilla.ISBN84-472-0210-0.
^Moreno, I. (1995). "La cultura del vino en Andalucía: identidades socioculturales y culturas del trabajo".Historia y cultura del vino en Andalucía (in Spanish). Ed. J.J. Iglesias. pp. 179–200.ISBN84-472-0210-0.
^For a detailed history of basketball in Andalucia, see:Gallardo Rodríguez, Miguel (2006).75 años de historia del baloncesto andaluz (in Spanish). Junta de Andalucía. Consejería de Turismo, Comercio y Deporte. Instituto Andaluz del Deporte.ISBN84-689-6145-0.
^Laffaye, Horace A. (2015).The Polo Encyclopedia, 2d Ed. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. p. 95.ISBN978-0-7864-9577-1.
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