Al-Andalus (Arabic:الأَنْدَلُس,romanized: al-ʾAndalus)[a] was theMuslim-ruled area of theIberian Peninsula. The name refers to the different Muslim[1][2] states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most of the peninsula[3][4][5] as well asSeptimania underUmayyad rule. These boundaries changed constantly through a series of conquests Westernhistoriography has traditionally characterized as theReconquista,[1][2][6][7][8] eventually shrinking to the south and finally to theEmirate of Granada.
For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented intotaifa states and principalities, some of which (such as theTaifa of Toledo, theTaifa of Zaragoza, theTaifa of Seville and theTaifa of Badajoz) reached considerable territorial extent. After the Christian capture ofToledo in 1085, the Almoravid empire intervened and repelled attacks on the region, then brought al-Andalus under direct Almoravid rule. For the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Muslim empires of the Almoravids and their successors, theAlmohads, both based inMarrakesh.
Ultimately, the northern Christian kingdoms overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In the 13th century, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule, withGharb al-Andalus, theGuadalquivir Valley andEastern al-Andalus falling to Portuguese, Castilian, and Aragonese conquests. This left the Emirate of Granada, that was to become a tributary state of the Crown of Castile, as the remaining Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula, and was surrendered in 1492 to theCatholic Monarchs.
The toponymal-Andalus is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia.[10] These coins, calleddinars, were inscribed in bothLatin andArabic.[11][12] The etymology of the nameal-Andalus has traditionally been derived from the name of theVandals (vándalos in Spanish,vândalos in Portuguese).
Since the 1980s, several alternative etymologies have challenged this tradition.[13] In 1986, Joaquín Vallvé proposed thatal-Andalus was a corruption of the nameAtlantis.[14] Heinz Halm in 1989 derived the name from a Gothic term,*landahlauts,[15] and in 2002, Georg Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate.[16]
Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expandingUmayyad Empire, under the name ofal-Andalus. It was organized as a province subordinate toIfriqiya, so, for the first few decades, thegovernors of al-Andalus were appointed by the emir ofKairouan, rather than the Caliph inDamascus. The regional capital was set atCórdoba, and the first influx of Muslim settlers was widely distributed.[citation needed]
The small army Tariq led in the initial conquest consisted mostly of Berbers, while Musa's largely Arab force of over 12,000 soldiers was accompanied by a group ofmawālī (Arabic, موالي), that is, non-Arab Muslims, who were clients of the Arabs. The Berber soldiers accompanying Tariq were garrisoned in the centre and the north of the peninsula, as well as in the Pyrenees,[18] while theBerber colonists who followed settled in all parts of the country – north, east, south and west.[19] Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs (notably, in Murcia, Galicia, and the Ebro valley). Resistant Visigoths took refuge in theCantabrian highlands, where they carved out a rump state, theKingdom of Asturias.
The province of al-Andalus in 750
In the 720s, the al-Andalus governors launched severalsa'ifa raids intoAquitaine but were decisively defeated by DukeOdo the Great of Aquitaine at theBattle of Toulouse (721). However, after crushing Odo's Berber allyUthman ibn Naissa on the eastern Pyrenees,Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi led an expedition north across the western Pyrenees and defeated the Aquitanian duke, who in turn appealed to theFrankish leaderCharles Martel for assistance, offering to place himself under Carolingian sovereignty. At theBattle of Poitiers in 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel and Al Ghafiqi was killed.[20] In 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturingAvignon andArles and overran much ofProvence. In 737, they traveled up theRhône valley, reaching as far north asBurgundy. Charles Martel of the Franks, with the assistance ofLiutprand of theLombards, invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739.
In 740, aBerber Revolt erupted in theMaghreb (North Africa). To put down the rebellion, the Umayyad CaliphHisham dispatched a large Arab army, composed of regiments (Junds) ofBilad Ash-Sham,[21] to North Africa. But the great Umayyad army was crushed by the Berber rebels at theBattle of Bagdoura (in Morocco). Heartened by the victories of their North African brethren, the Berbers of al-Andalus quickly raised their own revolt. Berber garrisons in the north of the Iberian Peninsula mutinied, deposed their Arab commanders, and organized a large rebel army to march against the strongholds of Toledo, Córdoba, and Algeciras.
In 741, Balj b. Bishr led a detachment of some 10,000 Arab troops across thestraits.[22] The Arab governor of al-Andalus, joined by this force, crushed the Berber rebels in a series of ferocious battles in 742. However, a quarrel immediately erupted between the Syrian commanders and the Andalusi, the so-called "original Arabs" of the earlier contingents. The Syrians defeated them at the hard-fought Battle of Aqua Portora in August 742 but were too few to impose themselves on the province.
The quarrel was settled in 743 whenAbū l-Khaṭṭār al-Ḥusām, the new governor of al-Andalus, assigned the Syrians to regimental fiefs across al-Andalus[23] – the Damascus jund was established in Elvira (Granada), the Jordan jund in Rayyu (Málaga andArchidona), the Jund Filastin inMedina-Sidonia andJerez, the Emesa (Hims) jund inSeville andNiebla, and the Qinnasrin jund inJaén. The Egypt jund was divided betweenBeja (Alentejo) in the west and Tudmir (Murcia) in the east.[24] The arrival of the Syrians substantially increased the Arab element in the Iberian peninsula and helped strengthen the Muslim hold on the south. However, at the same time, unwilling to be governed, the Syrianjunds carried on an existence of autonomous feudal anarchy, severely destabilizing the authority of the governor of al-Andalus.
A second significant consequence of the revolt was the expansion of theKingdom of the Asturias, hitherto confined to enclaves in the Cantabrian highlands. After the rebellious Berber garrisons evacuated the northern frontier fortresses, the Christian kingAlfonso I of Asturias set about immediately seizing the empty forts for himself, quickly adding the northwestern provinces ofGalicia andLeón to his fledgling kingdom. The Asturians evacuated the Christian populations from the towns and villages of the Galician-Leonese lowlands, creating an empty buffer zone in theDouro River valley (the "Desert of the Duero"). This newly emptied frontier remained roughly in place for the next few centuries as the boundary between the Christian north and the Islamic south. Between this frontier and its heartland in the south, the al-Andalus state had three largemarch territories (thughur): theLower March (capital initially atMérida, laterBadajoz), theMiddle March (centred at Toledo), and theUpper March (centred atZaragoza).
These disturbances and disorder also allowed the Franks, now under the leadership ofPepin the Short, to invade the strategic strip ofSeptimania in 752, hoping to deprive al-Andalus of an easy launching pad for raids intoFrancia. After a lengthy siege, the last Arab stronghold, the citadel ofNarbonne, finallyfell to the Franks in 759. Al-Andalus was sealed off at the Pyrenees.[25]
The third consequence of the Berber revolt was the collapse of the authority of theDamascus Caliphate over the western provinces. With the Umayyad Caliphs distracted by the challenge of theAbbasids in the east, the western provinces of the Maghreb and al-Andalus spun out of their control. From around 745, theFihrids, an illustrious local Arab clan descended fromOqba ibn Nafi al-Fihri, seized power in the western provinces and ruled them almost as a private family empire of their own – Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri in Ifriqiya andYūsuf al-Fihri in al-Andalus. The Fihrids welcomed the fall of the Umayyads in the east, in 750, and sought to reach an understanding with theAbbasids, hoping they might be allowed to continue their autonomous existence. But when the Abbasids rejected the offer and demanded submission, the Fihrids declared independence and, probably out of spite, invited the deposed remnants of the Umayyad clan to take refuge in their dominions. It was a fateful decision that they soon regretted, for the Umayyads, the sons and grandsons of caliphs, had a more legitimate claim to rule than the Fihrids themselves. Rebellious-minded local lords, disenchanted with the autocratic rule of the Fihrids, conspired with the arriving Umayyad exiles.
In 755, the exiled Umayyad princeAbd al-Rahman I (also calledal-Dākhil, the 'Immigrant') arrived on the coast of Spain.[26] He had fled the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus and were slaughtering members of that family, and then he spent four years in exile in North Africa, assessing the political situation in al-Andalus across the Straits of Gibraltar, before he landed atAlmuñécar.[27]
News of his arrival spread across al-Andalus, and when word reached its governor,Yūsuf al-Fihri, he was not pleased. During this time, Abd al-Rahman and his supporters quickly conqueredMálaga and thenSeville, finally besieging the capital of al-Andalus,Córdoba. Abd al-Rahman's army was exhausted after their conquest, meanwhile Governor Yūsuf al-Fihri had returned from quashing another rebellion with his army. The siege of Córdoba began, and noticing the starving state of Abd al-Rahman's army, al-Fihri began throwing lavish feasts every day as the siege went on, to tempt Abd al Rahman's supporters to defect to his side. However, Abd al-Rahman persisted, even rejecting a truce that would have allowed Abd al-Rahman to marry al-Fihri's daughter. After decisively defeating Yūsuf al-Fihri's army, Abd al-Rahman was able to conquer Córdoba, where he proclaimed himself emir in 756.[28] The rest of Iberia was easily conquered, and Abd al-Rahman soon had control of all of Iberia.[29]
Abd al Rahman's rule was stable in the years after his conquest – he built major public works, most famously theMosque of Córdoba, and helped urbanize the emirate while defending it from invaders, including the quashing of numerous rebellions, and decisively repelling the invasion byCharlemagne (which would later inspire the epic,Chanson de Roland). By far the most important of these invasions was the attempted reconquest by theAbbasid Caliphate. In 763 CaliphAl-Mansur of the Abbasids installedal-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). He planned to invade and destroy the Emirate of Córdoba, so in response Abd al Rahman fortified himself within the fortress ofCarmona with a tenth as many soldiers as al-Ala ibn-Mugith. After a long siege, it appeared that Abd al Rahman would be defeated, but in a last stand Abd al Rahman with his outnumbered forces opened the gates of the fortress and charged at the resting Abbasid army, and decisively defeated them. After being sent the embalmed head of al-Ala ibn-Mugith, it is said Al Mansur exclaimed "Praise be to God who has put the sea between me and this devil!".[29][30]
Interior of theMosque–Cathedral of Córdoba, the former Great Mosque built by Abd ar-Rahman I in 785, later expanded by his successors[31]
Abd al Rahman I died in 788 after a lengthy and prosperous reign. He was succeeded by his son,Hisham I, who secured power by exiling his brother who had tried to rebel against him. Hisham enjoyed a stable reign of eight years and was succeeded by his sonAl-Hakam I. The next few decades were relatively uneventful, with only occasional minor rebellions, and saw the rise of the emirate. In 822 Al Hakam died and was succeeded byAbd al-Rahman II, the first great emir of Córdoba. He rose to power with no opposition and sought to reform the emirate. He quickly reorganized the bureaucracy to be more efficient and built many mosques across the emirate. During his reign science and art flourished, as many scholars fled the Abbasid caliphate due to the disastrousFourth Fitna. The scholarAbbas ibn Firnas made an attempt to fly, though accounts vary on his success. In 852 Abd al Rahman II died, leaving behind him a powerful and well-established state that had become one of the most powerful in the Mediterranean.[32][33][34]
Abd al Rahman was succeeded byMuhammad I of Córdoba, who according to legend had to wear women's clothing to sneak into the imperial palace and be crowned, since he was not the heir apparent. His reign marked a decline in the emirate, which was ended byAbd al-Rahman III. His reign was marked by multiple rebellions, which were dealt with poorly and weakened the emirate, most disastrously following the rebellion ofUmar ibn Hafsun. When Muhammad died, he was succeeded by emirAbdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi whose power barely reached outside of the city of Córdoba. As Ibn Hafsun ravaged the south, Abdullah did almost nothing, and slowly became more and more isolated, barely speaking to anyone. Abdullah purged his administration of his brothers, which lessened the bureaucracy's loyalty towards him. Around this time several local Arab lords began to revolt, including one Kurayb ibn Khaldun, who was able to conquer Seville. Some loyalists tried to quell the rebellion, but without proper material support, their efforts were in vain.[35]
He declared that the next emir would be his grandsonAbd al-Rahman III, ignoring the claims of his four living children. Abdullah died in 912, and the throne passed to Abd al Rahman III. Through force of arms and diplomacy, he put down the rebellions that had disrupted his grandfather's reign, obliterating Ibn Hafsun and hunting down his sons. After this he led several sieges against the Christians, sacking the city ofPamplona, and restoring some prestige to the emirate. Meanwhile, across the sea theFatimids had risen up in force, ousted the Abbasid government in North Africa, and declared themselves a caliphate. Inspired by this action, Abd al Rahman joined the rebellion and declared himself caliph in 929.[36][37]
For nearly 100 years under the Córdoban Umayyad period, from the 9th century to the 10th, al-Andalus also extended its presence fromFraxinetum into the Alps with a series of organized raids.[38][39][40]
The period of theCaliphate is seen as thegolden age of al-Andalus. Córdoba under the Caliphate, with a population of more than half a million, eventually overtookConstantinople as the largest and most prosperous city in Europe.[41] Al-Andalus became a centre for the arts, medicine, science, music, literature and philosophy. The work of its most important philosophers and scientists, such asAbulcasis andAverroes, had a major influence on the intellectual life of medieval Europe. Muslims and non-Muslims often came from abroad to study at the libraries and universities of al-Andalus, and after the reconquest of Toledo, several translation institutions such as theToledo School of Translators were established for translating books and texts from Arabic into Latin. The most noted figures in this beingGerard of Cremona andMichael Scot, who took these works to Italy. The transmission of ideas significantly affected the formation of the EuropeanRenaissance.[42]
The Caliphate of Córdoba also had extensive trade with other parts of the Mediterranean, including Christian parts. Trade goods included luxury items (silk, ceramics, gold), essential foodstuffs (grain, olive oil, wine), and containers (such as ceramics for storing perishables). In the tenth century,Amalfitans were already tradingFatimid andByzantine silks in Córdoba.[43] Later references to Amalfitan merchants were sometimes used to emphasize the previous golden age of Córdoba.[44] Fatimid Egypt was a supplier of many luxury goods, including elephant tusks, and raw or carved crystals. The Fatimids were traditionally thought to be the only supplier of such goods, and control over these trade routes would be a cause for conflict between the Umayyads and Fatimids.[43]
TheCaliphate of Córdoba effectively collapsed during aruinous civil war between 1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031 whenal-Andalus broke up into a number of mostly independent mini-states and principalities calledtaifas. In 1013,invading Berbers sacked Córdoba, massacring its inhabitants, pillaging the city, and burning the palace complex to the ground.[45] The largest of the taifas to emerge wereBadajoz (Batalyaws),Toledo (Ṭulayṭulah),Zaragoza (Saraqusta), andGranada (Ġarnāṭah). After 1031, thetaifas were generally too weak to defend themselves against repeated raids and demands for tribute from the Christian states to the north and west, which were known to the Muslims as "the Galician nations",[46] and which had spread from their initial strongholds inGalicia,Asturias,Cantabria, the Basque country, and theCarolingianMarca Hispanica to become the Kingdoms ofNavarre,León,Portugal,Castile andAragon, and theCounty of Barcelona. During the eleventh century several centres of power existed among the taifas, and the political situation shifted rapidly. Before the rise of theAlmoravids from Africa or the Christians from the north, theAbbadid-ruledTaifa of Seville succeeded in conquering a dozen lesser kingdoms, becoming the most powerful and renowned of the taifas, such that it could have laid claim to be the true heir to the Caliphate of Córdoba. The taifas were vulnerable and divided but had immense wealth.[47] During its prominence the Taifa of Seville produced technically complexlusterware and exerted significant influence on ceramic production across al-Andalus.[48]
In the 1080s, thetaifa kingdoms began to face an existential threat from the Christian kingdoms to the north, asAlfonso VI of Castile escalated attacks against them.[49] In 1083, he led a punitive expedition against Seville that reached all the way toTarifa at the southern tip of al-Andalus.[50] In 1085, heannexed Toledo, a turning point which galvanized the remainingtaifa leaders into seeking outside help.[51]
After the fall of Toledo, most of the majortaifa rulers agreed to request the intervention of the Almoravids, a Berber empire based inMarrakesh that had conquered much of northwest Africa. The Almoravid leader,Yusuf Ibn Tashfin, led several campaigns into al-Andalus, initially in defense of thetaifa kingdoms. At theBattle of Sagrajas (or Battle of Zallaqa in Arabic), a Muslim army led by the Almoravids soundly defeated Alfonso VI.[52] By 1090, however, Yusuf ibn Tashfin was disillusioned with the disunity of thetaifa leaders and he returned on a campaign to conquer al-Andalus instead. Most of thetaifas, except for Zaragoza, were annexed by 1094.[53] Valencia, which had come under the control ofEl Cid at the end ofits taifa period, was eventually occupied in 1102, after El Cid's death.[54] Zaragoza was annexed in 1110.[55]
Modern scholarship has sometimes admitted originality in North African architecture, but according to Yasser Tabbaa, historian of Islamic art and architecture, the Iberocentric viewpoint is anachronistic when considering the political and cultural environment during the rule of the Almoravid dynasty.[56][relevant?] The rise and fall of the Almoravids is sometimes seen as an expression ofIbn Khaldun'sasabiyyah paradigm.[57][relevant?]
Expansion of the Almohad state in the 12th century
By 1147, the Almoravids were overthrown in North Africa by theAlmohads, another Berber dynasty, under the leadership ofAbd al-Mu'min. As Almoravid rule collapsed, another brief period oftaifa kingdoms followed in al-Andalus, during which the Christian kingdoms expanded southward again.[58][59] From 1146 onward, the Almohads intervened and took control of al-Andalus.[60] One of Abd al-Mu'min's successors,Ya'qub al-Mansur, won a major victory over the CastilianAlfonso VIII at theBattle of Alarcos in 1195.[61]
In 1212, a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of Alfonso VIII defeated the Almohads at theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Almohad rule was diminished in prestige and in 1228 the Almohad caliphal-Ma'mun withdrew from al-Andalus altogether.[62] In this political vacuum, a new wave oftaifa kingdoms emerged, which were progressively conquered by Portugal, Castile, and Aragon. Córdoba wasconquered in 1236 and Seville wasconquered in 1248.[63] Some Muslim city-states, such asMurcia andNiebla, survived as vassal kingdoms of Castile until the 1260s.[64] Only the region of Granada remained unconquered.
A silk textile fragment from the last Muslim dynasty of Al-Andalus, theNasrid Dynasty (1232–1492), with the epigraphic inscription "glory to our lord the Sultan".[65][66]
From the mid 13th to the late 15th century, the only remaining domain of al-Andalus was theEmirate of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula. The emirate was established byMuhammad ibn al-Ahmar in 1230 and was ruled by theNasrid dynasty, the longest reigning dynasty in the history of al-Andalus. Although surrounded by Castilian lands, the emirate was wealthy through being tightly integrated in Mediterranean trade networks and enjoyed a period of considerable cultural and economic prosperity.[67]
Despite internal conflicts, the Nasrids of Granada were able to survive in part by playing the Christian kingdoms of the north against each other, while at other times soliciting aid from theMarinids, a new Berber dynasty ruling in North Africa from their capital inFez.[68] For much of its existence, Granada paid tribute to the Castilian kings. Along with this political status, its favorable geographic location, with theSierra Nevada as a natural barrier, helped to prolong Nasrid rule.[69][70]
Granada also accommodated a large number of Muslim refugees fleeing theReconquista or expelled from Christian-controlled territories, which grew the city and the emirate's population.[71][72] The city even became one of the largest in Europe throughout the 15th century in terms of population.[73][74] The most visible legacy of the Nasrids is theAlhambra, their fortified palace complex, partly preserved today.[75] The independent Nasrid kingdom was also a trade hub between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and was frequented especially byGenoese merchants.[43]
The Marinids intervened in the south of the Iberian Peninsula multiple times up until their defeat at theBattle of Río Salado in 1340. After this, they ceased to play a major role.[76] The subsequent internal turmoil within Castile, however, helped Nasrid Granada to enjoy a period of relative external peace and internal prosperity until the end of the 14th century, under the reigns ofYusuf I (r. 1333–1354) andMuhammad V (r. 1354–1359, 1362–1391).[77] Important cultural figures, such asIbn al-Khatib,Ibn Zamrak, andIbn Khaldun all served in the Nasrid court during this period.[78][79]
In 1468,Isabella, the only child ofHenry IV of Castile, marriedFerdinand, the son ofJohn II of Aragon, and by 1479 they were rulers of a united Castile and Aragon.[80] This development meant that Granada could no longer exploit divisions between the two kingdoms and the new royal couple, also known as theCatholic Monarchs, were united in their intention to conquer it.[81] The finalwar to conquer Granada began in earnest in 1482.[82] Year by year, the Christian advance captured new cities and fortresses[83] until the last Nasrid ruler,Muhammad XII (known as Boabdil to the Christians), formallysurrendered Granada to the Catholic Monarchs on 2 January 1492.[84]
By this time Muslims in Castile numbered half a million. After the fall, "100,000 had died or been enslaved, 200,000 emigrated, and 200,000 remained as the residual population. Many of the Muslim elite, including Muhammad XII, who had been given the area of theAlpujarras mountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable and passed over into North Africa."[85] Under the conditions of the Capitulations of 1492, the Muslims in Granada were to be allowed to continue to practice their religion.
Massforced conversions of Muslims in 1499 led to arevolt that spread to Alpujarras and the mountains ofRonda; after this uprising the capitulations were revoked.[86] In 1502 the Catholic Monarchs decreed the forced conversion of all Muslims living under the rule of the Crown of Castile,[87] although in the kingdoms ofAragon andValencia (both now part of Spain) the open practice of Islam was allowed until 1526.[88] Descendants of the Muslims were subject to expulsions from Spain between 1609 and 1614 (seeExpulsion of the Moriscos).[89] The last mass prosecution againstMoriscos forcrypto-Islamic practices occurred in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. The Morisco community including these final convicts kept their identity alive at least through the late eighteenth century.[90]
There was much scientific activity in Al-Andalus, especially in the fields ofmedicine,astronomy,mathematics, andagronomy. At the same time, Andalusi scholars were also highly active inphilosophy (see below), especially in the field oflogic.[91] The earliest evidence of such activities in al-Andalus dates to the reign ofAbd ar-Rahman II (r. 822–852), when developments were spurred by exposure to older works translated from, Greek, Persian and other languages.[92] Scientific studies continued to be pursued in the following centuries, though certain fields and subjects thrived more depending on the period.[91] Scholars often worked in many different and overlapping subjects, so it is difficult to place those discussed here into a single scientific field each.[93]
The Andalusian physicianAbu'l Qasim Al-Zahrawi, who performed the first modern surgery, determined how to remove kidney stones, was known as the father of surgery, and developed many inventions and instruments.
There were many notable surgeons, physicians, and medical scholars from al-Andalus includingIbn al-Baytar (d. 1248),Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Albucasis; d. 1013), Muhammad al-Shafrah (d. 1360), Abu Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (d. 853), andAbu Marwan ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar; d. 1162).[94] And of particular note is al-Zahrawi, who is considered by many to be "probably the greatest physician in the entire history of Western Islam."[95] Around the year 1000 C.E, he wrote a book with a title that roughly translates toThe Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself (Kitab al-tasrif li-man 'ajiza 'an al-ta'alif)—a comprehensive medical encyclopedia with the goal of summarizing all existing medical knowledge and eliminating the need for students and practitioners to rely on multiple medical texts.[95] The book is renowned for its chapter on surgery which included important illustrations of surgical instruments, as well as sections "oncauterization, on incisions,venesection and wounds, and on bone-setting."[96] For hundreds of years after its publication it was one of the most widely used medical texts for students and medical practitioners and was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Castilian.[93][97] This encyclopedia is also significant for its inclusion of al-Zahrawi's personal experiences as a surgeon, which provided important case studies for aspiring surgeons. This distinguishes it from other strictly factual medical works of the time, most notably Ibn Sina'sCanon of Medicine.[97]
Other important medical texts include al-Baytar'sComprehensive Book on Simple Drugs and Foodstuffs—an encyclopedia with descriptions of the medical uses of over 1400 plants and other types of medicine—and ibn Habib'sBook of the Medicine of the Arabs (Kitab tibb al-'arab)—a historical summary of Arabic medicine until the 9th century.[98] Ibn Habib's work is significant because it is one of the oldest known writings in the field ofprophetic medicine, which useshadiths to create Islamic-based medicinal guidelines. His book is also significant because it uses principles ofGalenic medicine, such ashumorism and the theory offour temperaments, as the basis of its medical recommendations.[99]
The ibn Zuhr family played a very important role in the production of Andalusi medical knowledge, as they produced five generations of medical experts, particularly in the fields of dietary sciences andmedicaments.[100] Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (d. 1162) is particularly notable, as he wrote theBook of Moderation (Kitab al-Iqtisad)—a treatise on general therapy; theBook of Foods (Kitab al-Aghdhiya)—a manual on foods and regimen which contains guidelines for a healthy life; and theKitab al-Taysir—a book written to act as a compendium toIbn Rushd'sColliget. InKitab al-Taysir he provides one of the earliest clinical descriptions of thescabies mite.
Three of the most notable Andalusi astronomers wereIbn Tufail (d. 1185),Ibn Rushd (Averroes; d. 1198), andNur ad-Din al-Bitruji (Alpetragius; d. 1204). All lived around the same time and focused their astronomical works on critiquing and revisingPtolemaic astronomy and the problem of theequant in his astronomical model.[101] Instead, they acceptedAristotle's model and promoted the theory of homocentric spheres.[102]
Al-Bitruji is believed to have studied under Ibn Tufail and Bitruji'sBook on Cosmology (Kitab fi al-hay'a) built on Ibn Tufail's work, as well as that of Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja, and Maimonides. The book's goal was "to overcome the physical difficulties inherent in the geometrical models ofPtolemy'sAlmagest and to describe the cosmos in agreement with Aristotelian or Neoplatonic physics," which it succeeded in doing to an extent.[103] Bitruji's book set a precedent of criticizing theAlmagest in future works in the field of astronomy.[101]
Although Ibn Rushd originally trained and practiced as a jurist, he was exposed to astronomy—possibly through Ibn Tufail—and became a renowned scientist in the field.[104] His most popular work was hisSummary of the Almagest, but he also published shorter works discussing Aristotle's planetary theories.[105] Ibn Rushd published writings on philosophy, theology, and medicine throughout his life too, including commentaries on the works of Ibn Sina.[93][106]
In addition to writing the importantBook of the Medicine of the Arabs, Ibn Habib also wrote theBook on Stars (Kirab fi l-nujim). This book included important "teachings on the lunar mansions, the signs of the zodiac, [and] the division of the seasons."[107] In these teachings, Ibn-Habib calculated the phases of the moon and dates of the annual solstices and equinoxes with relative accuracy.[108]
Another important astronomer from al-Andalus wasMaslama al-Majriti (d. 1007), who played a role in translating and writing about Ptolemy'sPlanisphaerium andAlmagest. He built on the work of older astronomers, likeMuhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, whose astronomical tables he wrote a discussion on and subsequently improved.
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Zarqali (d. 1087) had many influential astronomical successes, as shown byCopernicus's recognition of him in hisOn the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres five centuries later. Along with other astronomers, he undertook extensive work to edit theToledan Zij astronomical tables. He also accurately calculated the motion of the solar apogee to be 12.04 seconds per year, which is relatively close to today's calculation of 11.8 seconds per year.[93]
Other important scientific advances in al-Andalus occurred in the field ofagronomy. These advances were in part facilitated by technological innovations in irrigation systems. State organized, large-scale irrigation projects provided water to city baths, mosques, gardens, residential homes, and governing palaces, such as theal-Hambra and its gardens in Granada. Collective, peasant-built irrigation infrastructure also played an important role, especially in agriculture. Many of these irrigation techniques, especially those utilized by peasants, were brought to al-Andalus by migratingBerber and Arab tribes. Although some irrigation projects built on existingRoman infrastructure, most of al-Andalus's irrigation systems were new projects built separate from old Roman aqueducts. However, there is some debate about this among scholars.[109]
One notableagriculturalist wasIbn al-'Awwam, who wrote theBook of Agriculture. This book contains 34 chapters about various aspects of agriculture and animal husbandry, including discussions of over 580 different types of plants and how to treat plant diseases.[93]
Other agronomic innovations in al-Andalus include the cultivation of the pomegranate from Syria, which has since become the namesake and ubiquitous symbol of the city of Granada, as well as the first attempt to create a botanical garden near Córdoba by 'Abd al-Rahman I.[110]
The society of al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Muslims, although united on the religious level, had several ethnic divisions, the main being the distinction between the Arabs and theBerbers. The Arab elite regarded non-Arab Muslims as second-class citizens; and they were particularly scornful of the Berbers.[112]
The ethnic structure of al-Andalus consisted of Arabs at the top of the social scale followed by, in descending order, Berbers,Muladies,Mozarabes, and Jews.[113] Each of these communities inhabited distinct neighborhoods in the cities. In the 10th century a massive conversion of Christians took place, andmuladies (Muslims of nativeIberian origin), formed the majority of Muslims.[citation needed] The Muwalladun had spoken in the localRomance dialects of Latin collectively calledAndalusi Romance orMozarabic while increasingly adopting the Arabic language, which eventually evolved into theAndalusi Arabic in which Muslims, Jews, and Christians became monolingual in the last surviving Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada (1230–1492). Eventually, the Muladies, and later the Berber tribes, adopted an Arabic identity like the majority of subject people inEgypt, theLevant,Mesopotamia, andNorth Africa.[citation needed] Muladies, together with other Muslims, comprised eighty per cent of the population of al-Andalus by 1100.[114][115]Mozarabs were Christians who had long lived under Muslim and Arab rule, adopting many Arab customs,art and architecture, and words, while still maintaining their Christian andLatin rituals and their ownRomance languages.[116]
The Jewish population worked mainly as tax collectors, intrade, or as doctors or ambassadors. At the end of the 15th century there were about 50,000Jews in Granada and roughly 100,000 in the whole of Islamic Iberia.[117]
A Christian and a Muslim play chess in 13th-century al-Andalus.
Non-Muslims were given the status ofahl al-dhimma (people under protection), with adult men paying a "Jizya" tax equal to one dinar per year with exemptions for the elderly and the disabled. Those who were neither Christians nor Jews, such as pagans, were given the status ofMajus.[118] The treatment of non-Muslims in the Caliphate has been a subject of considerable debate among scholars and commentators, especially those interested in drawing parallels to the co-existence of Muslims and non-Muslims in the modern world.[119]
Image of a Jewishcantor reading thePassover story in al-Andalus, from a 14th-century SpanishHaggadah
Jews constituted more than five per cent of the population.[120] Al-Andalus was a key centre of Jewish life during the earlyMiddle Ages, produced important scholars and was one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities.
The longest period of relative tolerance began after 912, with the reign ofAbd-ar-Rahman III and his son,Al-Hakam II, and the Jews of al-Andalus prospered by devoting themselves to the service of theCaliphate of Córdoba, the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially by trading insilk andslaves, which thus promoted the prosperity of the country. Southern Iberia became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of other countries.[121][122]
Under theAlmoravids and theAlmohads, there may have been intermittent persecution of Jews,[123] but sources are extremely scarce and do not give a clear picture though the situation appears to have deteriorated after 1160.[124] Muslimpogroms against Jews in al-Andalus occurred in Córdoba (1011) andin Granada (1066).[125][126][127] However, massacres ofdhimmis are believed to be rare inIslamic history.[128]
The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusi territories by 1147,[129] far surpassed theAlmoravides in fundamentalist outlook, and treated the non-Muslims harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.[130][131] Some, such as the family ofMaimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands.[130]
Many ethnicities and religions co-existed in al-Andalus, each of which contributed to its intellectual prosperity. Literacy in Islamic Iberia was far more widespread than in many other nations in the West of the time.[132]
In the 11th century, theHindu-Arabic numeral system (base 10) had reached Europe via Al-Andalus through Spanish Muslims, together with knowledge of astronomy and instruments like theastrolabe, which was first imported byGerbert of Aurillac. For that reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe asArabic numerals despite their origins in India.
From the earliest days, the Umayyads wanted to be seen as intellectual rivals to the Abbasids and for Córdoba to have libraries and educational institutions to that of their rival,Baghdad. Although there was a clear rivalry between the two powers, there was freedom to travel between the two caliphates,[citation needed] which helped spread new ideas and innovations over time.
Arabic arrived with theUmayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 andspread gradually over the following centuries, primarily throughconversion to Islam.[133] Arabic in al-Andalus became the language of administration and of literature[134] and a "vehicle for a higher culture, a literate and literary civilization."[133] It was widely adopted by the end of the 9th century, even among Andalusi Christians[135] and Jews, who wrote Arabic in Hebrew but did not have a distinct dialect.[133] Thevernacular varieties of Arabic spoken in al-Andalus, referred to asAndalusi Arabic, wereMaghrebi Arabic dialects influenced by their contact with Romance, just asArabic influenced Spanish.[133] By about 1260, following theAlmohad period, most Christians had migrated to the north and Muslim territories in Iberia were reduced to theEmirate of Granada, in which more than 90% of the population had converted to Islam and Arabic-Romance bilingualism seems to have largely disappeared.[136][137]
The literary traditions of Hebrew—which was used for prayer and ceremonial writings, but not for oral communication—experienced a revolution through contact with Arabic and its literary traditions. Consuelo López Morillas writes that Jews in al-Andalus "wrote Hebrew poetry using Arabic prosodic models and adopted nearly the entire range of Arabic poetic genres and stylistic devices in Hebrew," looking toBiblical Hebrew as a source for literary expression as Muslims looked to Quranic Arabic.[133]
In al-Andalus, there are 11,831 known scholars who were active and 13,730 known works that were written or transmitted from the eighth to fifteenth centuries.[141] Of these scholars, those who are well known and remembered in the West, such asIbn Rushd,Ibn Hazm, orIbn Arabi, are not necessarily the same scholars that are remembered in Islamic culture, such asAbū ʿUmar b. ʿAbd al-Barr,Abū l-Walīd al-Bājī,Ibn ʿAtịyya,Ibn al-ʿArīf, orAbū Isḥāq aš-Šāṭibī.[141]Poetry was considered the prime literary genre in Arabic.[142] Traditionalforms ofArabic poetry from theMashriq, or Muslim East, especially themonometer,monorhymeqaṣīda and theprosimetricmaqāma, were adopted in al-Andalus.[143] The major Andalusi innovation in poetry was the 'rhyme revolution' embodied in the 10th-11th centurystrophic song form called themuwaššaḥ ('girdled'; pl.muwaššaḥāt).[143] Themuwaššaḥ features a complex rhyme scheme usually containing fiveaghsān ('branches'; sing.ghusn), with uniform rhyme within each strophe, interspersed withasmāṭ ('threads for stringing pearls'; sing.simṭ) with common rhyme throughout the song, as well as a terminalkharja, the song's finalsimṭ, which could be in a different language.[144] Andalusizajal was strophic poetry inAndalusi vernacular Arabic, usually associated withIbn Quzman.[142] Andalusi strophic poetry had an impact on poetic expression in Western Europe, especially theOld Occitan/Provençallyric of thetroubadours,[145] and in the wider Muslim world.[146]
Lute song in a garden for a noble lady. 13th century manuscript from AndalusiHadith Bayad wa Riyad.
Rithā' al-Andalus is considered the most significant of a series of poems that were written in the classical tradition ofrithā' (which denotes both lamentation and a literary genre in itself[147]) by Andalusi poets who had taken inspiration from the fall of Andalusi cities and territories.[148]Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus also developed, mostly but not exclusively inHebrew, with significant consonance with Arabic poetry in both theme and form.[149][150]
One specialist of Al-Andalus' intellectual history, Maria Luisa Avila, says that "biographical dictionaries have recorded information about thousands of distinguished people in every period from al-Andalus, who were “cultivators of knowledge”, particularly in the legal-religious sciences as well as authors", and that "the exact number of scholars which appears in the biographical sources has not been established yet, but it surely exceeds six thousand."[151] It has been estimated that in the 10th century between 70,000 and 80,000 manuscripts were copied on a yearly basis in Córdoba alone.[152]
Themusic of al-Andalus is part of an influential musical tradition.[153]Ziryab, a poet and musician, who came from theAbbasid Caliphate and arrived in Córdoba in 822, played a role in Andalusi music as well as other aspects of Andalusi culture.[154] Poetic forms such as themuwashshah, thekharja, thenawba, and thezajal are prominent in Andalusi music.[155]
The historianSaid al-Andalus wrote that CaliphAbd-ar-Rahman III had collected libraries of books and granted patronage to scholars ofmedicine and "ancient sciences". Later,al-Mustansir (Al-Hakam II) went yet further, building a university and libraries in Córdoba.[156] Córdoba became one of the world's leading centres of medicine and philosophical debate.
When Al-Hakam's sonHisham II took over, real power was ceded to thehajib,al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir. Al-Mansur was a distinctly religious man and disapproved of the sciences of astronomy,logic, and especially ofastrology, so much so that many books on these subjects, which had been preserved and collected at great expense byAl-Hakam II, wereburned publicly. With Al-Mansur's death in 1002, interest in philosophy revived. Numerous scholars emerged, including Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun, whose masterwork was the philosophical treatise "Tree of Wisdom".Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti (died 1008) was an outstanding scholar in astronomy and astrology; he was an intrepid traveller who journeyed all over the Islamic world and beyond and kept in touch with theBrethren of Purity. He is said to have brought the 51 "Epistles of the Brethren of Purity" toal-Andalus and added the compendium to this work, although it is quite possible that it was added later by another scholar with the name al-Majriti. Another book attributed to al-Majriti is theGhayat al-Hakim, "The Aim of the Sage", which explored a synthesis ofPlatonism withHermetic philosophy. Its use of incantations led the book to be widely dismissed in later years, although theSufi communities continued to study it.
A prominent follower of al-Majriti was the philosopher and geometerAbu al-Hakam al-Kirmani who was followed, in turn, by Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, usually known in the Arab world asIbn Bajjah, "Avempace".
The al-Andalus philosopherAverroes (1126–1198) was the founder of theAverroism school of philosophy, and his works and commentaries influenced medieval thought in Western Europe.[157] Another influential al-Andalus philosopher wasIbn Tufail.
AsJewish thought in Babylonia declined, the tolerance ofal-Andalus made it the new centre of Jewish intellectual endeavours. Poets and commentators likeJudah Halevi (1086–1145) andDunash ben Labrat (920–990) contributed to the cultural life ofal-Andalus, but the area was even more important to the development of Jewish philosophy. A stream of Jewish philosophers, cross-fertilizing with Muslim philosophers (seejoint Jewish and Islamic philosophies), culminated with the widely celebrated Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages,Maimonides (1135–1205), though he did not actually do any of his work inal-Andalus, his family having fled persecution by theAlmohads around 1159.[158]
In Córdoba,Abd ar-Rahman I built theGreat Mosque of Córdoba in 785. It was expanded multiple times up until the 10th century, and after the Reconquista it was converted into a Catholic cathedral. Its key features include ahypostyle hall with marble columns supportingtwo-tiered arches, ahorseshoe-archmihrab, ribbed domes, a courtyard (sahn) with gardens, and aminaret (later converted into abell tower).[159]: 17–21, 61–79 [160] Abd ar-Rahman III, at the height of his power, began construction ofMadinat al-Zahra, a luxurious palace-city to serve as a new capital.[159]: 51–58 The Umayyads also reconstructed theRoman-era bridge over the Guadalquivir River in Córdoba, while the Almohads later added theCalahorra Tower to the bridge.[161]: 39, 45, 101, 137 TheBab al-Mardum Mosque (later converted to a church) in Toledo is a well-preserved example of a small neighbourhood mosque built at the end of the Caliphate period.[159]: 79
The official workshops of the Caliphate, such as those atMadinat al-Zahra, produced luxury goods for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe.[162] Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal,figurative, and epigraphic motifs. Notable surviving examples include thePyxis of al-Mughira, thePyxis of Zamora, and theLeyre Casket.[163][164]
During the Taifas period, art and culture continued to flourish despite the political fragmentation of Al-Andalus. TheAljaferia Palace of Zaragoza is the most significant palace preserved from this period, featuring complex ornamentalarcades andstucco decoration. In other cities, a number of important palaces or fortresses were begun or expanded by local dynasties such as theAlcazaba of Málaga and theAlcazaba of Almería. Other examples of architecture from around this period include theBañuelo of Granada, anIslamic bathhouse.[161]: 116–128
TheGiralda of Seville, originally built by the Almohads, is a prime example of Andalusi architecture.
In Seville, Almohad rulers built the Great Mosque of Seville (later transformed into theCathedral of Seville), which consisted of a hypostyle prayer hall, a courtyard (now known as thePatio de los Naranjos or Court of Oranges), and a massive minaret tower now known as theGiralda. The minaret was later expanded after being converted into a bell tower for the current cathedral.[159]: 130–133 Almohad architecture promoted new forms and decorative designs such as themultifoil arch and thesebka motif, probably influenced by the Caliphate-period architecture of Córdoba.[165]: 232–234, 257–258
Artists and intellectuals took refuge at Granada after the Christian kingdoms expanded significantly in the 13th century. The palaces of theAlhambra and theGeneralife in Granada reflect the culture and art of the last centuries of Muslim rule of Al-Andalus.[166] The complex was begun by Ibn al-Ahmar, the first Nasrid emir, and the last major additions were made during the reigns ofYusuf I (1333–1353) andMuhammad V (1353–1391).[159]: 152 It integrates buildings and gardens with the natural qualities of the site and is a testament to Andalusi culture and to the skills of the Muslim artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. Nasrid architecture continued the earlier traditions of Andalusi architecture while also synthesizing them into its own distinctive style, which had many similarities with contemporary Marinid architecture in North Africa.[167]: 219, 224 [159]: 149–168 [168]: 78–82 It is characterized by the use of thecourtyard as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their centre, such as areflective pool or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of buildings and was executed primarily withtile mosaics on lower walls and carved stucco on the upper walls.Geometric patterns,vegetal motifs, andcalligraphy were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known asmuqarnas, was used for three-dimensional features likevaulted ceilings, particularly during the reign of Muhammad V and after.[169][159]: 164–167
Even after Muslim territories were conquered by the Christian kingdoms, Andalusi art and architecture continued to appear for many centuries as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons employing Muslim craftsmen, originating theMozarabic art in theKingdom of Leon during the 10th century and becoming what is known as theMudéjar style (named after theMudéjars or Muslims under Christian rule). Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. theChurch of San Román, 13th century) and in the cities of Aragon such as Zaragoza andTeruel.[165]: 361–368 [170] Among the most famous examples is theAlcázar of Seville, the former Abbadid and Almohad palace redeveloped by Christian rulers such as Peter of Castile, who in 1364 started adding new Moorish-style sections with the help of Muslim craftsmen from Granada and Toledo.[159]: 171 Some surviving 13th and 14th-centuryJewishsynagogues were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar style under Christian rule, such as theSynagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form circa 1250),[171] theSynagogue of Córdoba (1315),[172] and theSynagogue of El Tránsito (1355–1357).[173][174]
The cultivation of sugarcane had reached the south of the Iberian Peninsula by the 16th century AD due to Arab conquest and administration of the region.
Diffusion of bananas from India to the Iberian peninsula during Islamic rule.
Crops produced using irrigation, along with food imported from the Middle East, provided areas aroundAndalusī cities with an agricultural economic sector that was the most advanced in Europe by far, sparking theArab Agricultural Revolution.[175][176] A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to Spain andSicily during Arab rule, via the commercial networks of the Islamic world. These include sugarcane,[177] rice,[178] cotton, alfalfa, oranges,[179] lemons,[180] apricots,[181] spinach,[182] eggplants,[183] carrots,[184]saffron[185] and bananas.[186] The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'—aceite andaceituna, respectively—are derived from the Arabical-zait, meaning 'olive juice'),[187] and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classicalGreco-Roman times.
Arabic influence still lingers on in Spanish cuisine through these fruits, vegetables, spices and cooking and agricultural techniques.[188][177] One of the largest palm groves in the world, called thePalmeral of Elche, was established by the Arabs between the 7th–10th centuries to facilitate fruit (including pomegranate and date crops) and vegetable growth underneath the cool shade of palm trees and irrigation channels, and is cited byUNESCO as an example of the transfer of agricultural practices from one continent (North Africa) to another (Iberian Peninsula of Europe).[189]
The period of Arab rule also involved the extension of Roman irrigation channels as well as the introduction of novel irrigation techniques from thePersianate world, such as theacequia (deriving from the classical Arabicas-sāqiya) – subterranean channels used to transport water from highland aquifers to lowland fields in arid environments –first originating in either the Arabian Peninsula or thePersian Empire (referred to asqanat orkarez in the Middle East). These structures are still found in Andalusia province, particularly in Granada.[190]
The confectionalfajor (supposedly fromالفاخر) has its origins in al-Andalus.[191]
TheEncyclopedia of Homosexuality states that "Al-Andalus had many links to Hellenistic culture, and except for the Almoravid and Almohadic periods (1086–1212), it was hedonistic and tolerant of homosexuality, indeed one of the times in world history in which sensuality of all sorts has been most openly enjoyed. Important rulers such as Abd al-Rahman III, al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and al-Mu-tamid openly chose boys as sexual partners, and keptcatamites. Homosexual prostitution was widespread, and its customers came from higher levels of society than those of heterosexual prostitutes." The verses ofIbn Quzman describe an openly bisexual lifestyle.[192] Andalusi anthologies of poetry such as theRāyāt al-mubarrizīn wa-ghāyāt al-mumayyazīn are known in part for their homoerotic and "abundant pederastic poetry". Such themes were also found in the Sephardic Jewish poetry of the time.[193]
In the bookMedieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia, Daniel Eisenberg describeshomosexuality as "a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Iberia", stating that "in al-Andalus homosexual pleasures were much indulged in by the intellectual and political elite. Evidence includes the behaviour of rulers, such as Abd al-Rahmn III, Al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and Al Mu'tamid, who openly kept male harems; the memoirs ofAbdallah ibn Buluggin, last Zirid king of Granada, makes references to male prostitutes, who charged higher fees and had a higher class of clientele than did their female counterparts: the repeated criticisms of Christians; and especially the abundant poetry. Bothpederasty and love between adult males are found. Although homosexual practices were never officially condoned, prohibitions against them were rarely enforced, and usually there was not even a pretense of doing so." Male homosexual relations allowed nonprocreative sexual practices and were not seen as a form of identity. Very little is known about the homosexual behaviour of women.[194]
Slavery existed in Muslim al-Andalus as well as in the Christian kingdoms, and both sides of the religious border followed the custom of not enslaving people of their own religion. Consequently, Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, while Christians and other non-Muslims were enslaved in al-Andalus.[195]
The Moors imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the end of theReconquista in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe (Saqaliba). Saqaliba slavery in al-Andalus was especially prominent in theCaliphate of Córdoba where white slaves constituted most of the administrative personnel in the courts and palaces.[196]
The slaves of the Caliph were often Europeansaqaliba slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number of tasks, such as offices in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case ofharem guards, they were castrated), female saqaliba were placed in the harem.[197]
The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem ofAbd al-Rahman I consisted of 6,300 women.[198] They were appreciated for their light skin.[199] The concubines (jawaris) were educated in accomplishments to please their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine.[199] Jawaris concubines who gave birth to a child attained the status of anumm walad, which meant that they could no longer be sold and were to be set free after the death of her master.
As Andalusi cities were conquered by Leon, Castile, and other Christian Spanish kingdoms, Christian monarchs such asAlfonso X of Castile started translating the mountainous libraries of al-Andalus into Latin. These libraries contained translations of Ancient Greek texts, as well as new ones made by Muslims in theIslamic Golden Age. That, combined with the interaction with Muslims during theCrusades, and theFall of Constantinople introducing Greek scholars to the west, helped launch theRenaissance.[citation needed] Scientists and philosophers such asAverroes andAl-Zahrawi (fathers of rationalism and surgery, respectively) heavily inspired the Renaissance, and their ideas are still world renowned to this day.[citation needed] Al Andalus has also left art and architecture and has some of the best preservedIslamic Golden Age architecture in the world, with examples including theCathedral of Córdoba, theAlhambra, theGiralda and many more.[200][201][202][203][204]
As a result of the Reconquista and fall of many important Andalusi cities, substantial numbers of Andalusi migrated to the Maghreb where they found place at the courts of Maghrebi rulers. Many of the elite Andalusi immigrants were Arabs. For a variety of reasons, "Andalusi" came to be almost synonymous with "Arab" in the Maghreb.[205]
^ab"Para los autores árabes medievales, el término Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas – siquiera temporalmente – por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" ("For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas – even temporarily – by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Spain, Portugal and France"),García de Cortázar, José Ángel.V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, 1 al 5 de agosto de 1994, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1995, p. 52.
^abBenito Ruano, Eloy[in Spanish] (2002).Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media. Real Academia de la Historia. p. 79.ISBN978-84-95983-06-0.Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania")
^García Fitz, Francisco (2010). Rogers, Clifford J.; Caferro, William; Reid, Shelley (eds.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Oxford University Press. pp. 325–326.ISBN978-0-19-533403-6.Barely eight years after the initial crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Muslims had come to dominate almost the entire Peninsula with the exception of a few northern mountainous regions along Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges. In these areas, indigenous populations, including the Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques, who had been brought under Visigothic control, were able to escape Islamic domination.
^abRíos Saloma, Martín Federico (2011).La Reconquista: una construcción historiográfica (siglos XVI-XIX). Marcial Pons Historia. México Madrid: Universidad nacional autónoma de México, Instituto de inversigaciones históricas M. Pons.ISBN978-84-92820-47-4.
^García Sanjuán, Alejandro (2020)."Weaponizing Historical Knowledge: the Notion of Reconquista in Spanish Nationalism".Imago Temporis: Medium Aevum.XIV.doi:10.21001/itma.2020.14.04.hdl:10272/19498.ISSN1888-3931.S2CID226491379.The notion of Reconquista is the product of 19th-century Spanish Nationalist thinking. Although developed as an academic concept, it played, at the same time, a crucial political and ideological role, thus holding a very powerful and potentially toxic ideological burden, chiefly consisting of the idea that Spain is a nation shaped against Islam. Its dual academic and ideological nature makes it a highly problematic concept that greatly contributed to produce a largely biased and distorted vision of the Iberian medieval past, aimed at delegitimizing the Islamic presence (al-Andalus) and therefore at legitimizing the Christian conquest of the Muslim territory. Over the last years and in the framework of the Clash of Civilizations doctrine, conservative and far-right scholarly and political outlets reignited the most ideological version of the Reconquista, thus raising a major challenge for academic historians.
^Bossong, Georg (2002). Restle, David; Zaefferer, Dietmar (eds.)."Der Name al-Andalus: neue Überlegungen zu einem alten Problem" [The Name al-Andalus: Revisiting an Old Problem](PDF).Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Sounds and systems: studies in structure and change. (in German).141. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton: 149.ISBN978-3-11-089465-3.ISSN1861-4302.Archived(PDF) from the original on June 27, 2008.Only a few years after the Islamic conquest of Spain,Al-Andalus appears in coin inscriptions as the Arabic equivalent ofHispania. The traditionally held view that the etymology of this name has to do with the Vandals is shown to have no serious foundation. The phonetic, morphosyntactic, and historical problems connected with this etymology are too numerous. Moreover, the existence of this name in various parts of central and northern Spain proves thatAl-Andalus cannot be derived from thisGermanic tribe. It was the original name of the Punta Marroquí cape near Tarifa; very soon, it became generalized to designate the whole Peninsula. Undoubtedly, the name is of Pre-Indo-European origin. The parts of this compound (anda andluz) are frequent in the indigenous toponymy of the Iberian Peninsula.
^Pérès, Henri (2007). "Balāṭ al-S̲h̲uhadāʾ". In Bearman, P.; Th. Bianquis, Th.; C.E. Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. pp. 988–989.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1135.Balāṭ al-S̲h̲uhadāʾ: an expression used by the Arab historians for the Battle of Poitiers, which was fought between Charles Martel, at the head of the Christian Frankish armies, and the governor of Muslim Spain ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. ʿAbd Allāh al-Ghāfiḳī in Ramaḍān 114/October 732.
^Specifically, 27,000 Arab troops were composed of 6,000 men from each of the four mainjunds ofJund Dimashq (Damascus),Jund Hims (Homs),Jund al-Urdunn (Jordan), andJund Filastin (Filastin), plus 3,000 fromJund Qinnasrin. An additional 3,000 were picked up inEgypt. See R. Dozy (1913)Spanish Islam: A History of the Muslims in Spain (translated by Francis Griffin Stokes from Dozy's original (1861) FrenchHistoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, with consultation of the 1874 German version and the 1877 Spanish version) Chatto & Windus, London,page 133
^Some authors mention bands penetrating as far north as Sankt Gallen, where they sacked the monastery in 939. Cf. Ekkehard, Casus S. Galli, IV, 15 (pp. 137f); Lévi-Provençal (1950:60); Reinaud (1964:149f).
^Barceló, Carmen; Heidenreich, Anja (October 19, 2014). "Lusterware Made in the Abbadid Taifa of Seville (Eleventh Century) and Its Early Production in the Mediterranean Region".Muqarnas Online.31 (1):245–276.doi:10.1163/22118993-00311P10.ISSN0732-2992.
^Yasser Tabbaa (2008)."Andalusian Roots And Abbasid Homage In The Qubbat Al-Barudiyyin In Marrakech". In Gülru Neci̇poğlu; Julia Bailey (eds.).Frontiers of Islamic Art and Architecture: Essays in Celebration of Oleg Grabar's Eightieth Birthday; the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture Thirtieth Anniversary Special Volume. BRILL. pp. 133–134.ISBN978-90-04-17327-9.Whereas this Hispanocentric perspective might apply for Moroccan architecture of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries—when many Andalusian artisans are known to have resettled in Morocco—it seems anachronistic in dealing with periods when Andalusia itself was ruled by dynasties from Morocco, in particular the Almoravids (1061–1147) and the Almohads (1130–1260).
^abMarín, Manuela; Samsó, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998).The formation of al-Andalus. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. xlvi.ISBN0-86078-708-7.OCLC38890783.
^Pormann, Peter E. (2007).Medieval Islamic medicine. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 61–62.ISBN978-1-58901-160-1.OCLC71581787.
^abPormann, Peter E. (2007).Medieval Islamic medicine. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. p. 117.ISBN978-1-58901-160-1.OCLC71581787.
^Pormann, Peter E. (2007).Medieval Islamic medicine. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 53–54.ISBN978-1-58901-160-1.OCLC71581787.
^Marín, Manuela; Samsó, Julio; Fierro, Ma. Isabel (1998).The formation of al-Andalus. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 393–394.ISBN0-86078-708-7.OCLC38890783.
^Pormann, Peter E. (2007).Medieval Islamic medicine. Savage-Smith, Emilie. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 82, 119.ISBN978-1-58901-160-1.OCLC71581787.
^abSaliba, George. (1994).A history of Arabic astronomy : planetary theories during the golden age of Islam. New York: New York University Press. pp. 62–63.ISBN0-8147-8023-7.OCLC35666761.
^Wall, Wilson (October 2018).A history of optical telescopes in astronomy. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. pp. 9–10.ISBN978-3-319-99088-0.OCLC1060593202.
^Samsó, Julio (2007). "Biṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaҁfar]Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Biṭrūjī". In Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.).Biṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaҁfar]Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Biṭrūjī.The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer New York. pp. 133–134.doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_164.ISBN978-0-387-30400-7.
^Forcada, Miquel (2007), "Ibn Rushd: Abū al-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Rushd al-Ḥafīd", in Hockey, Thomas; Trimble, Virginia; Williams, Thomas R.; Bracher, Katherine (eds.),The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, Springer New York, pp. 564–565,doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_687,ISBN978-0-387-30400-7
^"The rate of conversion is slow until the tenth century (less than one-quarter of the eventual total number of converts had been converted); the explosive period coincides closely with the reign of 'Abd al-Rahmdn III (912–961); the process is completed (eighty per cent converted) by around 1100. The curve, moreover, makes possible a reasonable estimate of the religious distribution of the population. Assuming that there were seven million Hispano-Romans in the peninsula in 711 and that the numbers of this segment of the population remained level through the eleventh century (with population growth balancing out Christian migration to the north), then by 912 there would have been approximately 2.8 million indigenous Muslims (muwalladûn) plus Arabs and Berbers. At this point Christians still vastly outnumbered Muslims. By 1100, however, the number of indigenous Muslims would have risen to a majority of 5.6 million.", (Glick 1999, Chapter 1: At the crossroads of civilization)
^Schweitzer, Frederick M.; Marvin Perry.Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002,ISBN0-312-16561-7, pp. 267–268.
^abMenocal, María Rosa; Scheindlin, Raymond P.; Sells, Micheal (2012).The literature of al-Andalus. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-17787-0.OCLC819159086.
^abReynolds, Dwight F. (2022), Sykäri, Venla; Fabb, Nigel (eds.),"Rhyme in Arabic Oral Poetry",Rhyme and Rhyming in Verbal Art, Language, and Song, vol. 14, Finnish Literature Society, pp. 47–62,ISBN978-951-858-587-2, retrievedJanuary 11, 2025
^Sarah Stroumsa,Andalus and Sefarad, 2019, page 86.
^Maria Luisa Avila, "Women in Andalusi Biographical Sources" in Randi Deguilhem/Manuela Marin (ed.),Writing the Feminine: Women in Arab Sources, I.B.Tauris (2002), p. 152.
^Roman, Stephan (1990).The development of Islamic library collections in Western Europe and North America, Mansell Publishing, p. x.
^Hurvitz, Nimrod (2020).Conversion to Islam in the Premodern Age: A Sourcebook. Univ of California Press. p. 215.ISBN978-0-520-96910-0.He and his family had left their native town of Córdoba around 554/1159 to escape persecution by the Almohads, who had recently conquered al-Andalus and replaced the ruling Almoravid dynasty. After fleeing Córdoba, Maimonides settled in Fez but fled persecution again in 560/1165, moving first to Palestine and finally to Fusṭāṭ, near Cairo, where he would remain.
^Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009)."Córdoba".The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. p. 332.ISBN9780195309911.
^Bermúdez López, Jesús (2011).The Alhambra and the Generalife: Official Guide. TF Editores.ISBN9788492441129.
^Borrás Gualís, Gonzalo M.; Lavado Paradinas, Pedro; Pleguezuelo Hernández, Alfonso; Pérez Higuera, María Teresa; Mogollón Cano-Cortés, María Pilar; Morales, Alfredo J.; López Guzman, Rafael; Sorroche Cuerva, Miguel Ángel; Stuyck Fernández Arche, Sandra (2018).Mudéjar Art: Islamic Aesthetics in Christian Art (Islamic Art in the Mediterranean). Museum Ohne Grenzen (Museum With No Frontiers).ISBN9783902782144.
^Squatriti, Paolo (2014). "Of Seeds, Seasons, and Seas: Andrew Watson's Medieval Agrarian Revolution Forty Years Later".The Journal of Economic History.74 (4):1205–1220.doi:10.1017/S0022050714000904 (inactive November 1, 2024).S2CID154969169.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
^Eisenberg, Daniel (2003)."Homosexuality". In E. Michael Gerli; Samuel G. Armistead (eds.).Medieval Iberia. Taylor & Francis. p. 398.ISBN978-0-415-93918-8.
Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (2021). "Granada, Capital of al-Andalus and Core of the Nasrid Kingdom (7th–9th/13th–15th Centuries)". In Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (ed.).A Companion to Islamic Granada. Brill. pp. 122–163.ISBN978-90-04-42581-1.
Bossong, Georg. 2002. "Der NameAl-Andalus: Neue Überlegungen zu einem alten Problem",Sounds and Systems: Studies in Structure and Change. A Festschrift for Theo Vennemann, eds. David Restle & Dietmar Zaefferer. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 149–164. (In German) Also availableonline
Calderwood, Eric. 2018.Colonial al-Andalus : Spain and the making of modern Moroccan culture. Harvard University Press
Frank, Daniel H. & Leaman, Oliver. 2003.The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-65574-9
Gerli, E. Michael, ed., 2003.Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia. NY: Routledge.ISBN0-415-93918-6
Halm, Heinz. 1989. "Al-Andalus und Gothica Sors",[1] 66:252–263.
Hamilton, Michelle M., Sarah J. Portnoy, and David A. Wacks, eds. 2004.Wine, Women, and Song: Hebrew and Arabic Literature in Medieval Iberia. Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs.
Luscombe, David and Jonathan Riley-Smith, eds. 2004.The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c. 1024 – c. 1198, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-41411-3
Marcus, Ivan G., "Beyond the Sephardic mystique",Orim, vol. 1 (1985): 35–53.
Marín, Manuela, ed. 1998.The Formation of Al-Andalus, vol. 1:History and Society. Aldershot: Ashgate.ISBN0-86078-708-7
Menocal, Maria Rosa. 2002.Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Boston: Little, Brown and Company; London: Back Bay Books.ISBN0-316-16871-8
Monroe, James T. 1970.Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship: (Sixteenth century to the present). Leiden: Brill.
Monroe, James T. 1974.Hispano-Arabic Poetry: A Student Anthology. Berkeley, Cal.: University of California Press.
Netanyahu, Benzion. 1995.The Origins Of The Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain. NY: Random HouseISBN0-679-41065-1
O'Callaghan, Joseph F. 1975.A History of Medieval Spain. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.ISBN0-8014-9264-5
Reilly, Bernard F. 1993.The Medieval Spains. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-39741-3
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Sanchez-Albornoz, Claudio. 1974.El Islam de España y el Occidente. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. Colección Austral; 1560. [Originally published in 1965 in the conference proceedings,L'occidente e l'islam nell'alto medioevo: 2–8 aprile 1964, 2 vols. Spoleto: Centro Italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo. Series: Settimane di studio del Centro Italiano di studi sull'Alto Medioevo; 12. Vol. 1:149–308.]
Schorsch, Ismar, 1989. "The myth of Sephardic supremacy",The Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 34 (1989): 47–66.
Stavans, Ilan. 2003.The Scroll and the Cross: 1,000 Years of Jewish-Hispanic Literature. London: Routledge.ISBN0-415-92930-X
Wasserstein, David J. 1995. "Jewish élites in Al-Andalus",The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society and Identity, ed. Daniel Frank. Leiden: Brill.ISBN90-04-10404-6
The Musical Legacy of Al-Andalus – historical maps, photos, and music showing the Great Mosque of Córdoba and related movements of people and culture over time
Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain, Scholarly essays and exhibition catalog from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF or on Google Books)
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