Thecuisine ofancient Rome changed a lot over the duration of the civilization's existence. Dietaryhabits were affected by the political changes fromkingdom torepublic toempire, andRoman trading with foreigners along with the empire's enormous expansion exposed Romans to many new foods, provincial culinary habits and cooking methods.
In the beginning, dietary differences betweenRoman social classes were not great, but disparities developed with the empire's growth.
Most organic foods decay under ordinary conditions, but ashes and animal bones offer some archaeological details about the ancient Roman diet.Phytoliths have been found at a cemetery inTarragona, Spain. Imported figs were among the charred foods preserved whenBoudica and her army burned down a Roman shop inColchester.Chickpeas and bowls of fruit are known fromHerculaneum, preserved sinceVesuvius destroyed the town in 79 AD. Remains of small fish bones,sea urchin spines andmineralized plants have survived in the city'ssewers; the plantsarchaeologists have identified includedill,coriander,flax,lentil,cabbage,opium poppy and various othernuts, fruits andlegumes, as well as a diverse variety of fish and shellfish. AtPompeii, grapes, cheese, bread andpastry were burned and buried inperistyle courtyard gardens as offerings to householdLares.[1]
Traditionally, abreakfast calledientaculum[2] was served at dawn. At mid-day to early afternoon, Romans atecena,[2] the main meal of the day, and at nightfall a light supper calledvesperna.[3] With the increased importation of foreign foods, thecena grew larger in size and included a wider range of foods. Thus, it gradually shifted to the evening, while thevesperna[3] was abandoned completely over the course of the years. The mid-day mealprandium became a light meal to hold one over untilcena.[2] Among the lower classes of the Roman society, these changes were less pronounced as the traditional routines corresponded closely to the daily rhythms of manual labour.
However, among the upper classes, who normally did not engage in manual labour, it became customary to schedule all business obligations in the morning. After theprandium, the last responsibilities would be discharged, and a visit would be made to thebaths. Around 2 p.m.,[4] the cena would begin. This meal could last until late in the night, especially if guests were invited, and would often be followed bycomissatio, a round of alcoholic beverages (usuallywine).
In the period of the kings and the earlyRepublic, but also in later periods (for the working classes), thecena essentially consisted of a kind ofporridge, thepuls.[5] The simplest kind would be made fromemmer, water, salt and fat. A more sophisticated variation was made witholive oil, and consumed with an accompaniment of assortedvegetables when available. The wealthy commonly ate theirpuls witheggs,cheese, andhoney and it was also occasionally served withmeat orfish.
Over the course of the Republican period, thecena developed into two courses: the main course and a dessert with fruit and seafood (e.g.molluscs,shrimp). By the end of the Republic, it was usual for the meal to be served in three parts: an appetiser (gustatio), main course (primae mensae), and dessert (secundae mensae).
The Roman legions' staple ration of food was wheat. In the 4th century, most legionaries ate as well as anyone in Rome. They were supplied with rations of bread and vegetables along with meats such as beef, mutton, or pork. Rations also depended on where the legions were stationed or were campaigning. Mutton was popular in Northern Gaul and Britannia, but pork was the main meat ration of the legions.[6]
The Roman colonies provided many foods to Rome; the city receivedham fromBelgium, oysters fromBrittany,garum fromMauretania, wild game fromTunisia,silphium (laser) fromCyrenaica, flowers fromEgypt, lettuce fromCappadocia, and fish fromPontus.[7]
The ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples ofmodern Italian cooking.Pliny the Elder discussed more than 30 varieties ofolive, 40 kinds ofpear,figs (native and imported from Africa and the eastern provinces), and a wide variety ofvegetables.[a][9] Some of these vegetables are no longer present in the modern world, while others have undergone significant changes.Carrots of different colours were consumed, but not in orange.[10] Many kinds of vegetables were cultivated and consumed.[11] These included celery, garlic, some flower bulbs,cabbage and otherbrassicas (such askale andbroccoli),lettuce,endive,onion,leek,asparagus,radishes,turnips,parsnips,carrots,beets, green peas, chard, field greens,cardoons, olives, andcucumber.[11] Some vegetables were illustrated inreliefs.[12]
However, some foods considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used.[13] In particular,spinach andeggplant (aubergine) were introduced later from theArab world, andtomatoes,potatoes,capsicum peppers,maize (the modern source ofpolenta)[12] and beans of the Phaseolus genusPhaseolus vulgaris (green - French and runner, lima, kidney)[14][circular reference] only appeared in Europe following the discovery of theNew World and theColumbian Exchange.[13] The Romans knew of rice, but it was very rarely available to them. There were also fewcitrus fruits.[13] Lemons were known in Italy from the second century AD but were not widely cultivated.[15]
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From 123 BC, a ration of unmilled wheat (as much as 33 kg), known as thefrumentatio, was distributed to as many as 200,000 people every month by the Roman state.[16] There was originally a charge for this but from 58 BC this charge was abolished by the plebeian tribunePublius Clodius Pulcher. Individuals had to be citizens and domiciled in Rome to receive thefrumentatio.[16]
Originally flat, round loaves made ofemmer (a species of wheat) with a bit ofsalt were eaten; among the upper classes,eggs,cheese, andhoney, along withmilk andfruit were also consumed. In theImperial period, around 1 AD, bread made ofwheat was introduced; with time, more and more wheaten foods began to replace emmer loaves. There were many kinds of bread of differing quality. Typically white bread was baked for the elite, with darker bread baked for the middle class, and the darkest bread for the poor peasants.[17] The bread was sometimes dipped inwine and eaten with olives, cheese, and grapes. At the time ofthe destruction of Pompeii in AD 79, there were at least 33 bakeries in that city.[18] Roman chefs made sweet buns flavored with blackcurrants and cheese cakes made with flour, honey, eggs, ricotta-like cheese and poppy seed. Sweet wine cakes were made with honey, reduced red wine and cinnamon. Fruit tarts were popular with the upper class, but the lower classes couldn't afford to personally make them or purchase them from markets and vendors.[citation needed]
Juscellum was a broth with grated bread, eggs, sage and saffron, described inApicius, a Roman recipe book of the late 4th or early 5th century.[19]
Butcher's meat was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat waspork, especiallysausages.[20]Beef was uncommon in ancient Rome, being more common inancient Greece—it is not mentioned byJuvenal orHorace.[20]Seafood,game, andpoultry, including ducks and geese, were more common. For instance, on histriumph, Caesar gave a public feast to 260,000 humiliores (poorer people) which featured all three of these foods, but no butcher's meat.[20] John E. Stambaugh writes that meat "was scarce except at sacrifices and the dinner parties of the rich".[21] Cows were prized for their milk; bulls as plough and draftanimals. Meat of working animals was tough and unappetizing. Veal was eaten occasionally. Apicius gives only four recipes for beef but the same recipes call for lamb or pork as options. There is only one recipe for beef stew and another for veal scallopini.[22]
Dormice were eaten and considered adelicacy.[23] It was a status symbol among wealthy Romans, and some even had dormice weighed in front of dinner guests.[24] Asumptuary law enacted underMarcus Aemilius Scaurus forbade the eating of dormice, but failed to stop the practice.[25]
Fish was more common than meat.[21]Aquaculture was sophisticated, with large-scale industries devoted tooyster farming.[21] The Romans also engaged insnail farming and oak grub farming.[21] Some fish were greatly esteemed and fetched high prices, such as mullet raised in the fishery atCosa, and "elaborate means were invented to assure its freshness".[21]
Fruit was eaten fresh when in season, anddried or preserved over winter. Popular fruits includedapples,pears,figs,grapes,quinces,citron,strawberries,blackberries,elderberries,currants,damson plums,dates,melons,rose hips andpomegranates.[21] Less common fruits were the more exoticazeroles andmedlars.Cherries andapricots, both introduced in the 1st century BC, were popular. Peaches were introduced in the 1st century AD from Persia.Oranges andlemons were known but used more for medicinal purposes than in cookery.[21] Although known to the ancient Romans, lemons were not cultivated in Italy until thePrincipate.[21][26] At least 35cultivars of pear were grown in Rome, along with three types of apples. Cato described pear culture methods similar to modern techniques.[27] There are recipes for pear and peach creams and milk puddings flavored with honey, pepper and a littlegarum.
Columella offers advice on the preservation of figs by crushing them into a paste with anise, fennel seed, cumin and toasted sesame to be wrapped in fig leaves.[28]
While the precursors ofBrussels sprouts,artichokes,peas,rutabaga, and possiblycauliflower probably existed in Roman times, the modern cultivated forms we think of were not developed until the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance times. Cabbage was eaten both raw (sometimes dipped in vinegar) and cooked.[12]Cato greatly esteemed cabbage, believing it to be good for the digestion, and also (inaccurately) believed that if a sick person ate a great deal of cabbage and bathed in his ownurine, he would recover.[29]
Legumes were limited todried peas,fava beans (broad beans),chickpeas,lentils, andlupins. The Romans knew several varieties ofchickpea, such as venus, ram, and punic. They were either cooked down into a broth or roasted as a snack. The Roman cookbookApicius gives several recipes for chickpeas.[30]
The ancient Romans atewalnuts,almonds,pistachios,chestnuts,hazelnuts (filberts),pine nuts, andsesame seeds, which they sometimes pulverized to thicken spiced, sweet wine sauces for roast meat and fowl to serve on the side or over the meat as a glaze. Nuts were also used in savoury pesto-like sauces for cold cuts. Nuts were used in pastries, tarts and puddings sweetened with honey.
Cheese was eaten and its manufacture was well-established by the Roman Empire period.[31] It was part of the standard rations for Roman soldiers and was popular among civilians as well. The EmperorDiocletian (284–305 CE) fixedmaximum prices for cheese.[31] The manufacture of cheese and its quality and culinary uses are mentioned by a number of Roman authors:Pliny the Elder described cheese's dietary and medicinal uses in Book 28 ofHistoria Naturalis, andVarro inDe Agricultura described the Roman cheesemaking season (spring and summer) and compared soft, new cheeses with drier, aged cheeses. The most extensive description of Roman cheese-making comes fromColumella, from his treatise onRoman agriculture,De Re Rustica.[32]
Garum was the distinctive fish sauce of ancient Rome.[33] It was used as aseasoning, in place of salt; as a tablecondiment; and as asauce. There were four major fish sauce types:garum,liquamen,muria, andallec.[33] It was made in different qualities, from fish such astuna,mullet, andsea bass.[33] It could be flavored, for example mixed with wine, or diluted with water (hydrogarum), a form popular among Roman soldiers, although the emperorElagabalus asserted that he was the first to serve it at publicbanquets in Rome.[33] The most costly garum wasgarum sociorum, made frommackerel (scomber) at theNew Carthage fisheries in Spain, and widely traded.[33] Pliny wrote in hisNatural History that twocongii (7 litres) of this sauce cost 1,000sesterces.[34] One thousand sesterces in the Early Empire was equal to 110 g of gold.[citation needed]
One of many modes of cooking in ancient Rome was thefocus, ahearth that was placed in front of thelararium, the household altar which contained small sculptures of thehousehold deity (thelares, or guardian ancestor-spirits, and thepenates, who were believed to protect thefloor, the larder).[36] In homes where thelararium was built into the wall, thefocus was sometimes built of raised brick into four sides, constructed against abaseboard on which a fire was lit. More common was afocus that was rectangular and portable, consisting simply of a moveable hearth with stone orbronze feet.[37] After the development of separate kitchens, thefocus began to be used only for religious offerings and for warmth, rather than for cooking.[37]
Portable stoves and ovens were used by the Romans, and some had water pots andgrills laid onto them. AtPompeii, most houses had separate kitchens, most fairly small, but a few large; theVilla of the Mysteries covers a nine-by-twelve meter area.[38] A number of kitchens at Pompeii had no roofs, resemblingcourtyards more than ordinary rooms; this allowed smoke to ventilate.[38] Kitchens that did have roofs must have been extremely smokey, since the only ventilation would come from high windows or holes in the ceiling; while the Romans builtchimneys for their bakeries and smithies, they were unknown in private dwellings until about the 12th century A.D, well after the collapse of Roman civilization.[39][40]
Many Roman kitchens had an oven (furnus orfornax), and some (such as the kitchen of the Villa of the Mysteries) had two.[41] A square or dome-shaped construction of brick or stone, these ovens had a flat floor, often ofgranite and sometimeslava, which were filled with dry twigs and then lit.[41] On the walls of kitchens were hooks and chains for hanging cooking equipment, including various pots and pans,knives, meatforks,sieves,graters,spits,tongs,cheese-slicers,nutcrackers,jugs for measuring, andpâté moulds.[41]
In Ancient Rome, wine was normally mixed with water immediately before drinking, since the fermentation was not controlled and thealcohol concentration was high. Wine was sometimes adjusted and "improved" by its makers: instructions survive for makingwhite wine fromred and vice versa, as well as for rescuing wine that is turning tovinegar.[42] Those instructions as well as detailed descriptions of Roman viticulture date back to 160 BC in the oldest surviving text written in Latin prose.[43]
Wine was also variously flavored. For example, there waspassum, a strong and sweet raisin wine, for which the earliest known recipe is ofCarthaginian origin;mulsum, a freshly made mixture of wine and honey (called a pyment today); andconditum, a mixture of wine, honey and spices made in advance and matured. One specific recipe,Conditum Paradoxum, is for a mixture of wine, honey,pepper,laurel,dates,mastic, andsaffron, cooked and stored for later use. Another recipe called for the addition of seawater,pitch androsin to the wine. A Greek traveler reported that the beverage was apparently an acquired taste.[42] Sour wine mixed with water and herbs (posca) was a popular drink for the lower classes and a staple part of the Roman soldier's ration.[44]
Beer (cerevisia) was known but considered vulgar, and was associated withbarbarians.[45][46]
While lacking necessary ingredients commonly used in the modern era for sweets such as refinedsugar or properly churnedbutter, ancient Rome had desserts to serve after they had completed their meals served withwine.[42] The most renowned were large platters of various fruits picked fresh; some of the more exotic fruits that were not able to grow in Rome were even shipped in from distant continents for the wealthy. Due to the lack of asweetener such as sugar there was always a desire for the sweetest fruits that were available. Spira was a type of sweet pastry that was readily available during this time, made with a thin, cake-like crust sometimes containing fruit. Enkythoi is a common type ofGreek pastry that was popular in Rome. It was softer, like a modernsponge cake.
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