InAncient Greek, all nouns are classified according togrammatical gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and are used in anumber (singular,dual, orplural). According to their function in asentence, theirform changes to one of the fivecases (nominative,vocative,accusative,genitive, ordative). The set of forms that a noun will take for each case and number is determined by thedeclension that it follows.

The five cases of Ancient Greek each have different functions.

The Ancient Greeknominative, like theProto-Indo-European nominative, is used for thesubject and for things describing the subject (predicate nouns or adjectives):

• Σωκράτης γὰρσοφὸς ἦν καὶδίκαιος.^[1]

Sōkrátēs gàrsophòs ên kaìdíkaios.

"ForSocrates waswise andjust."

The vocative is used for addressing people or things. It is frequently the same as the nominative in the singular and always the same in the plural.

• ἀληθῆ λέγεις, ὦΣώκρατες^[2]

alēthê légeis, ôSṓkrates

"What you say is true,Socrates."

The accusative is used for the object of a verb, and also after prepositions. After prepositions it is often used for the destination of motion:

• πέμπουσιν ἐςΚρήτηνἀγγέλους^[3]

pémpousin esKrḗtēnangélous

"They sendmessengers toCrete."

The Ancient Greekgenitive can often be translated with the preposition "of" or the Englishpossessive case:

• ἡτοῦ Καίσαρος γυνή.^[4]

hētoû Kaísaros gunḗ.

"The wifeof Caesar."

It is also used after prepositions, especially those which mean "from":

• ἀπῆλθεν ἐκτῆς ἀγορᾶς.^[5]

apêlthen ektês agorâs.

"He went away fromthe market-place."

The Ancient Greekdative corresponds to the Proto-Indo-Europeandative,instrumental, orlocative. When it corresponds to the dative, it expresses the person or thing that is indirectly affected by an action, and can often be translated with the prepositions "to" or "for":

• λέγει τὴν μαντείαντῷ Σωκράτει.^[6]

légei tḕn manteíantôi Sōkrátei.

"He tells the oracleto Socrates."

When the dative corresponds to the Proto-Indo-European instrumental, it expresses the thing with which something is done, and can often be translated by the preposition "with":

• ἔβαλλέ μελίθοις^[7]

éballé melíthois

"He was hitting mewith stones."

When the dative corresponds to the Proto-Indo-European locative case (this is often the case when it is used with prepositions), it expresses location (sometimes figuratively) or time, and can often be translated by "in", "at", or "on":

• τρίτῳ ἔτει ὡμολόγησαν Ἀθηναίοις.^[8]

trítōi étei hōmológēsan Athēnaíois.

"In the third year they came to an agreement with the Athenians."

The dative is also frequently used after prepositions, such asἐν (en) "in":

• ἐντῇ μάχῃ ἀπέθανεν.^[9]

entêi mákhēi apéthanen.

"He died inthe battle."

For first- and second-declension nouns accented on theultima and third-declension nouns with a single-syllable stem, the strong cases (nominative and accusative) have one type of accent, and the weak cases (genitive and dative) have another.

Specifically, the first- and second-declension nouns have acute (´) in the strong cases, but circumflex (ˆ) in the weak cases. Third-declension nouns have the accent on the stem in the strong cases, but the ending in the weak cases.

Both of these patterns can be summarized by a single rule suggested byPaul Kiparsky: pre-ending accent in the strong cases and post-stem accent in the weak cases.^[10]

For first- and second-declension nouns, Kiparsky's rule is more complex. The thematic vowel (ο orᾱ) counts as neither stem nor ending, but alternates between the two depending on which accent is considered. For post-stem accent, it counts as part of the ending; for pre-ending accent, it counts as part of the stem.

The first declension or alpha declension is consideredthematic, with long alpha (ᾱ) at the end of the stem, though it is derived from original athematic Indo-European forms. InAttic Greek, this changes toη everywhere except afterε, ι orρ. The first declension includes mostly feminine nouns, but also a few masculine nouns, includingagent nouns in-της,patronyms in-ίδης, anddemonyms.

The first-declension genitive plural always takes a circumflex on the last syllable. In Homeric Greek the ending was-άων (ᾱ) or-έων (throughshortening from *-ηων).-έων was contracted to-ῶν in Attic.^[11]

Some nouns have shortᾰ in the nominative, vocative and accusative singular,^[12] but are otherwise identical to other feminine first-declension nouns. They are recessively accented, i.e. the accent retreats as far left as the rules of Greek accentuation allow.

Most nouns in this category were formed with the suffix*-ya (sometimes written-ι̯ᾰ).^[13] The*y (representing thesemivowel[j]) undergoes one of several sound changes with the consonant at the end of the stem:

• *glōkʰ-ya >γλῶσσᾰ, Atticγλῶττᾰ "tongue" (palatalization;^[14] compareγλωχῑν "point")
• *mor-ya >μοῖρᾰ "portion" (metathesis;^[15] compareμόρος)
• *gepʰur-ya >γέφῡρᾰ "bridge" (compensatory lengthening ofυ after loss ofι̯)^[16]
• PIE*n̥-leh₂dʰ-es-ya >Proto-Greek*ə-lātʰeh-ya >*a-lātʰeyya > Attic Greekἀλήθειᾰ "truth" (assimilation of*h to*y; compareἀληθές "something true")

Masculine first-declension nouns end in-ᾱς or-ης in Attic.Homer retains the older masculine ending-ᾱ and usesναύτᾱ "sailor" instead ofναύτης: compareLatinnauta.

The masculine genitive singular ending comes from the second declension.^[17] Homeric Greek uses-ᾱο or-εω.^[11]

The second or omicron declension isthematic, with an-ο or-ε at the end of the stem. It includes one class of masculine and feminine nouns and one class of neuter nouns.

When a second-declension noun is accented on the ultima, the accent switches between acute for the nominative, accusative, and vocative, and circumflex for the genitive and dative. The only exceptions are Attic-declension and contracted nouns.

Masculine and feminine both end in-ος, and can only be distinguished by an article or adjective.

In the neuter, the nominative, vocative and accusative are the same, with a singular in-ον and plural in-ᾰ. Other forms are identical to the masculine and feminine second declension.

In the Attic dialect, some masculine second-declension nouns and some adjectives have endings with lengthened vowels. Some nouns in this category end in-εως, which developed from an original *-ηος by the process ofquantitative metathesis (switching of vowel lengths). All second-declension endings containingο were transformed:

• ο, ου →ω
• οι →ῳ

The placement of the accent does not change, even when the ultima is long, and all forms take an acute instead of a circumflex.

In these nouns, the nominative singular, vocative singular, and accusative plural are identical, as are the accusative singular and genitive plural, and the dative singular and nominative and vocative plural.

In Attic, nouns and adjectives ending in-εος or-οος and-εον or-οον arecontracted so that they end in-ους and-ουν.

When the ultima is accented, it takes a circumflex in all forms, including the nominative, accusative, and vocative.

The third declension group includes masculine, feminine and neuter nouns. It is anathematic declension that lacks the standard thematic vowels of the two thematic declensions above. This results in varied and often complex phonemic interactions between stem and ending, especially so between adjacent consonants, that often make these nouns appear to be highly irregular compared to their straightforward thematic counterparts.

These nouns in the nominative singular end with the vowelsα, ι, υ, ω or with the consonantsν, ρ, ς (ξ, ψ). They form the genitive case with-ος, -ως or-ους.

Third-declension nouns have one, two, or three stems, unlike first- and second-declension nouns, which always have only one stem. Each stem is used in different case-and-number forms. In nouns with two stems, the stem with the long vowel is called the strong stem, while the stem with the short vowel is called the weak stem. The strong stem is found at the nominative singular, and the weak stem in the genitive singular.

• ἡγεμών (long vowel, strong stem: nominative singular)

  ἡγεμόνος (short vowel, weak stem: genitive singular)

The masculine and feminine nominative singular ordinarily ends in-ς, but has no ending in some nouns whose stems end in-ν- and-ντ-, and all nouns in-ρ: ἡγεμών, ἀκτίς (from *ἀκτίν-ς),γέρων (from *γέρωντ),γίγας (from *γίγαντ-ς),ῥήτωρ. The neuter nominative, accusative, and vocative singular always has no ending.

Theα of the accusative singular and plural was originally asyllabic ν. The accusative singular ending-α appears afterProto-Greek consonants, and is much more common than-ν, because almost all third-declension stems end in a consonant. When a Proto-Greek consonant was lost (ϝ,ι̯,σ),-α appears after a vowel, and may be lengthened toᾱ:βασιλέᾱ. The endingν appears after the vowelsυ andι:ἰσχύν, πόλιν. The ending-νς always changes to-ας, except in the accusative plural ofἰχθύς, where it lengthens the precedingυ bycompensatory lengthening, yieldingἰχθῦς.

A peculiar subset of this declension is used when declining foreign masculine names such asἸησοῦς, Ἰούδᾱς, Λευῑ́(ς): the nominative takes a sigma, the genitive and vocative are the bare stem, the dative may receive an iota subscript if possible, the accusative receives a nu. However, other nouns in which the cluster arising with the sigma at nominative would be un-Greek (e.g.Γολιάθ) are instead kept undeclined.

These nouns end in-ν, -ρ, -ς (-ξ, -ψ). Based on the last letter of the stem, they are divided into two categories:

Themute-stem nouns have stems ending in-κ-, -γ-, -χ- (velar-stem nouns),-π-, -β-, -φ- (labial-stem nouns),-τ-, -δ-, -θ- (dental-stem nouns).

Thesemi mute-stem nouns have stems ending in-ν- (nasal-stem nouns),-λ-, -ρ- (liquid-stem nouns),-σ- (sibilant-stem nouns).

Nominative singular-ς and dative plural-σι cause pronunciation or spelling changes, depending on the consonant at the end of the stem.

In the nominative singular and dative plural, the velarsκ, γ, χ combined withσ are written asξ, and the labialsπ, β, φ combined withσ are written asψ.

In the nominative singular and dative plural, a dentalτ, δ, θ beforeσ is lost:τάπης, notτάπητς.

If a noun is not accented on the last syllable and ends in-ις, -ης, or-υς, it often has an accusative singular in-ν and a vocative with no ending.

• ἡ χάρις, Πάρνης, κόρυς

  τὴν χάριν, Πάρνην, κόρυν (accusative)

  ὦ χάρι, Πάρνη, κόρυ (vocative)

In the nominative singular and dative plural,ντ beforeσ is lost, and the previous vowel islengthened bycompensatory lengthening. In the vocative singular, final-τ is lost, as Ancient Greek words cannot end in stops.

When a noun is accented on the last syllable, the vocative singular is identical to the nominative:

• ὁἱμάς "leather strap"

  ὦ ἱμάς (vocative)

These nouns have a weak stem in-οντ- and a strong stem in-ωντ-. The strong stem is used only in the nominative singular. The vocative singular is the weak stem without an ending. In both the nominative and vocative singular, the finalτ disappears. In the dative plural, theσ in the ending causes theντ to disappear, and theο is lengthened toου bycompensatory lengthening.

In these nouns, the stem originally ended in-ν̥τ- (withsyllabic n), which changed to-ατ- in Greek. In the nominative singular, the final-τ disappeared.

Some nouns have stems ending in-ν-. The nominative singular may end in-ς, causing compensatory lengthening, or have no ending.

Some nouns have a strong stem in-ην-, -ων- and a weak stem in-εν-, -ον-. The nominative singular is the only form with the strong stem. Nouns of this class that are not accented on the last syllable use the weak stem without an ending for the vocative singular.

• ὁγείτων "neighbour"

  ὦ γεῖτον (vocative)

Liquid-stems have stems ending in-λ- or-ρ-. Unlike mute-stems, these nouns do not change in spelling or pronunciation when the dative plural ending-σι is added.

Some nouns end in-ηρ, -ωρ and take the endings without any sound changes.

Some nouns have a nominative singular in-ηρ, -ωρ. The stem for the rest of the forms ends in-ερ-, -ορ-.Nouns in this class that are not accented on the last syllable use the weak stem without an ending for the vocative singular.

Some nouns have a strong stem in-ηρ in the nominative singular, a middle stem in-ερ- in other forms, and a weak stem in-ρ(α)- in yet other forms. Theα in the dative plural was added for ease of pronunciation; the original form ended in-ρσι.

These includeὁ πατήρ "father",ἡ μήτηρ "mother",ἡ θυγάτηρ "daughter",ἡ γαστήρ "stomach",ἡ Δημήτηρ "Demeter",ὁ ἀνήρ "man".

The first three andγαστήρ use the weak stem in the genitive and dative singular and in the dative plural. The rest use the weak stem in the genitive, dative, and accusative singular and in the plural.

The vocative singular is usually the middle stem without an ending and accent on the first syllable.

Nouns in all three genders have stems ending in-εσ- or-οσ-. But in most cases, theσ was lost after beingdebuccalized to/h/, so for the most part the stems appear to actually end in-ε--ο-. In Attic, but not Ionic, theε orο iscontracted with the vowel of the ending. Whenσ combines with the-σι of the dative plural, thedoubleσσ is simplified to singleσ.

There are several masculine proper names with nominative singulars in-ης and stems in-εσ-. The vocative singular is the bare stem without an ending.

There are a few feminines with nominative singulars in-ως and stems in-οσ-.

Some neuter nouns have nominative, accusative, and vocative singulars in-ος, and stems in-εσ-.

These nouns end withι, υ, ευ, αυ, ου, ω.

These take the endings without sound changes.

Because these nouns have a stem ending in-υ-, the accusative singular appears as-υν rather than-υα, and the accusative plural changes bycompensatory lengthening from-υνς to-ῡς.

There are many feminine nouns in-ις, and a few masculine nouns in-υς, and one neuter noun:ἄστυ "town".

One stem is in-ι- or-υ-, another is in-ει- or-ευ-, and a third is in-ηι- or-ηυ-. But these stems underwent sound changes, so that they are no longer obvious. Before a vowel, theι orυ in the second and third stem became the semivowelι̯ or ϝ, and was lost. The long-vowel stem in the genitive singular was shortened, and the vowel in the ending lengthened (quantitative metathesis). Therefore, there appear to be two stems, ending inι/υ andε.

The nouns in-ευς have two stems: one with shortε, another with longη. Both originally ended with digamma, which by the time of Classical Greek had either vanished or changed toυ. Thus the stems end in-ε(υ)-, from *-εϝ-, and-η-, from *-ηϝ-. In Attic Greek theη of the stem underwent quantitative metathesis with the vowel of the ending—the switching of their lengths. This is the origin of the-ως, -ᾱ, andᾱς of the forms based on the stem in-η-.

The nouns with a vowel before the-εύς often contract the finalε of the stem (either original or from quantitative metathesis ofη), which disappears into the followingω andᾱ of the genitive and accusative singular and plural. As is the rule, the vowel resulting from contraction takes a circumflex:

• nom.:ἁλιεύς "fisherman",gen.:ἁλιέως andἁλιῶς, pluralἁλιέων andἁλιῶν,acc.:ἁλιέα andἁλιᾶ, pluralἁλιέας andἁλιᾶς.

Stems in-οι- end in-ω in the nominative singular. Theι becomes the semivowelι̯ and is lost, except in the vocative singular. There are no plural forms; when the plural does appear, it follows the second declension. The rest of the cases are formed by contraction.

New nouns may be formed by suffix addition. Sometimes suffixes are added on top of each other:

• βῐ́βλοςbíblos "papyrus"
  • βιβλίονbiblíon "book"
  • βιβλάριον,βιβλιάριον,βιβλαρίδιον,βιβλιδάριον "small scroll"^[18]

    biblárion, bibliárion, biblarídion, biblidárion

  • βιβλίδιονbiblídion "petition"

• Malden, Henry (1855)."On the Uncontracted Form of the Genitive Case Singular of Greek Nouns of the Second Declension".Transactions of the Philological Society (10).

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