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Anatolian beyliks (Turkish:Anadolu beylikleri,Ottoman Turkish:Tavâif-i mülûk,Beylik;Turkish pronunciation:[bejlic]) were Turkish[1]principalities (orpetty kingdoms) inAnatolia governed bybeys, the first of which were founded at the end of the 11th century. A second and more extensive period of establishment took place as a result of the decline of theSeljuq Sultanate of Rûm in the latter half of the 13th century.
One of thebeyliks, theottoman beylik that of theOsmanoğlu of theKayı branch ofOghuz Turks, from its capital inBursa completed its incorporation of the otherbeyliks to form theOttoman Empire by the late 15th century.
The wordbeylik denotes a territory under the jurisdiction of abey, equivalent to aduchy orprincipality in other parts of Europe.[2]
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Following the 1071Seljuk victory over theByzantine Empire at theBattle of Manzikert and the subsequent conquest of Anatolia,Oghuz Turkic clans began settling in present-dayTurkey. TheSeljuk Sultanate of Rum's central power established inKonya was largely a result of using these clans under appointedbeys calleduç bey oruj begi (especially in border areas to ensure safety against the Byzantines);uç is a Turkish term that denotes a border or frontier territory equivalent tomarches, with the similar termmargrave used in other parts of Europe. These clans, led bybeys, would receive military and financial support from the Seljuks in return for their fealty.
However,Mongol invasions from the East saw a decline in Seljuk power. TheIlkhanate commanders in Anatolia then gained strength and authority which encouraged thebeys, who had until then beenvassals to theSultanate of Rum, to declare sovereignty over their dominions. With the fall of Seljuk centralized power in Konya, manybeys joined forces with theatabegs (former Seljuk leaders), and other religious Muslim leaders, in addition to employingGhazi warriors from Persia and Turkestan.
As theByzantine Empire weakened, their cities inAsia Minor became gradually less and less able to resist these attacks, and many Turks began to settle in western parts of Anatolia.[note 1] As a result, many more beyliks were founded in these newly conquered realms, who engaged in power struggles with theByzantines, theGenoese, theKnights Templar, as well as between each other.
By 1300, the Turks had reached theAegean coastline, held momentarily two centuries before. In the beginning, the most powerful states were theKaramanids and theGermiyanids in the central area. The Beylik ofOsmanoğlu, who would later go on to become theOttoman Empire, was situated in the northwest, aroundSöğüt, and was at that stage relatively small and possessed modest military power. Along theAegean coast, from North to South, were the principalities ofKarasi,Saruhan,Aydin,Menteşe, andTeke. TheCandar dynasty (later also known as Isfendiyar) reigned in theBlack Sea region around the provinces ofKastamonu andSinop in what was the Beylik of Candar.[5]
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Under its eponymous founder,Osman I, the Beylik of Osman expanded at Byzantine expense westwards and southwards of theSea of Marmara in the first decades of the 14th century. With their annexation of the neighboringBeylik of Karasi and their advance intoRumelia starting in 1354, they soon gained strength to emerge as the principal rivals of theBeylik of Karaman, who at the time were thought to be the strongest. Towards the end of the 14th century, theOttomans advanced further intoAnatolia either through the acquisition of towns or by cementing marriage alliances. Meanwhile, wary of an increase in Ottoman regional power, the Karamanids repeatedly engaged in conflict with the Ottomans with the help of other beyliks,Mamluks,Aq Qoyunlu ("White Sheep Turkomans"),Byzantines,Pontics andHungarians, failing and losing power every time. By the close of the century, the early Ottoman leaders had conquered large parts of land from Karamanids and other less prominent beyliks. These had a short respite when their territories were restored to them after the Ottoman defeat suffered againstTamerlane in 1402 in theBattle of Ankara.
But the Ottoman state quickly collected itself underMehmed I and his sonMurad II, who reincorporated most of these beyliks into Ottoman territory in a period of about 25 years. The final blow to theBeylik of Karaman was struck byMehmed II, who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia. The further steps towards a single rule by the Ottomans were taken bySelim I who conquered territories of theBeylik of Ramadan and theBeylik of Dulkadir in 1515 during his campaign against theMamluk Sultanate, and his sonSüleyman the Magnificent who more or less completely united the present territories of Turkey (and much more) in his 1534 campaign. Many of the former Anatolian beyliks subsequently became the basis for theadministrative subdivisions in the Ottoman Empire.
In the list below, only the beyliks that were founded immediately after theBattle of Manzikert in 1071, mostly situated towards eastern Anatolia, and who were vassals (or sometimes at war) of the centralized power of theSeljuk Sultanate of Rum based inKonya are listed.
| Beylik's name | Capital city | Duration of rule |
|---|---|---|
| Beylik of Smyrna | İzmir | 1081–1098 |
| Shah-Armens (also called Ahlatshahs) | Ahlat | 1110–1207 |
| Artuqids (three branches) | Hasankeyf,Mardin,Harput | 1102–1409 |
| Danishmend | Sivas | 1071–1178 |
| Dilmaçoğlu | Bitlis | 1085–1398 |
| İnaloğlu | Diyarbekir | 1095–1183 |
| Mengujekids | Erzincan, laterDivriği | 1072–1277 |
| Saltukids | Erzurum | 1072–1202 |
| Çubukoğulları | Harput | 1085–1112 |
| Beylik of Tanrıbermiş | Alaşehir | 1071–1098 |
A second group beyliks emerged as a result of the weakening of this central state under theMongol blow with theBattle of Köse Dağ in 1243, which had the indirect consequence of extendingTurkic territory in Western Anatolia toward the end of the 13th century.
| Beylik's name | Capital city | Duration of rule |
|---|---|---|
| Ahiler[note 2] | Ankara | c. 1290–1362 |
| Alaiye | Alanya | 1293–1471 as vassals toKaramanids |
| Aydinids | Birgi, laterAyasluğ (Selçuk) | 1300–1425 |
| Canik | Samsun,Amasya and the vicinity | ?–1460 |
| Candar (later also known as Beylik of Isfendiyar) | Eflani, laterKastamonu, lastSinop | 1291–1461 |
| Chobanids | Kastamonu (preceding theCandars) | 1211–1309 |
| Dulkadirids | Elbistan, laterMaraş | 1348–1522 |
| Eretnids | Sivas, laterKayseri | 1335–1390 |
| Erzincan | Erzincan | 1379–1410 |
| Eshrefids | Beyşehir | 1285–1326 |
| Germiyanids | Kütahya | 1300–1429 |
| Hamidids | Eğirdir | 1300–1391 |
| Kadi Burhan al-Din | Sivas (replacing theEretnids) | 1381–1398 |
| Karamanids | Larende (Karaman) | 1250–1487 |
| Karasids/Karası | Balıkesir, laterBergama andÇanakkale | 1296–1357 |
| Ladik (also calledInanjids, subordinate to Sahib Ataids and Germiyanids) | Denizli | 1262–1391 |
| Menteşe | Milas | 1261–1424 |
| Ottoman beylik (later theOttoman Empire) | Söğüt, laterBursa,Dimetoka,Edirne andIstanbul | 1299–1922 |
| Pervâneid | Sinop | 1277–1322 |
| Ramadanids | Adana | 1352–1608 |
| Sahib Ataids | Afyonkarahisar | 1275–1341 |
| Sarukhanids | Manisa | 1300–1410 |
| Teke (issued from theHamidids) | Antalya, laterKorkuteli | 1321–1423 |
Combined with the Seljuks and the migration of Turkic tribes into the Anatolian mainland, the Anatolian beyliks spread the Turkic language and Islamic culture in Anatolia.[6] Unlike the Seljuks, whose administrative language wasPersian, the Anatolian beyliks adopted spoken Turkic as their formal literary language.[6] TheTurkish language thus achieved widespread use in these principalities and reached its highest sophistication during theOttoman era.[6]
In spite of their limited sources and the political climate of their era, art during the Anatolian beyliks flourished, probably forming the basis forOttoman art. Although the artistic style of the Anatolian beyliks can be considered as representatives of a transition period betweenSeljuks and Ottomans, new trends were also acquired. Especially wandering traditional crafts artists and architects helped spread these new trends and localized styles to several beyliks across Anatolia, which resulted in innovative and original works particularly in architecture. Wood and stone carving, clay tiles and other similar decorative arts of the Seljuks were still used, however with the influence of the pursuit for new spaces and its reflections in other arts as well.[citation needed]
Some representative examples of the Anatolian beyliks' architecture areİlyas Bey Mosque atBalat (Milet) (1404),İsabey Mosque atSelçuk (1375),Ulucami Mosque atBirgi (1312) built by the Aydın beylik. The above mosques, although being successors of Seljuq architecture, differ greatly in the increase of decorations in the interior and exterior spaces and the different placement of thecourtyards andminarets. Karaman beylik also left noteworthy architectural works, such asUlucami Mosque inErmenek (1302),HatuniyeMadrassa in Karaman (1382),Akmedrese Madrassa inNiğde (1409), all of which respect a new style that considers and incorporates the exterior surroundings also. One of the first examples of the Anatolian beylik architecture hinting at the forming of theOttoman architecture that aims at uniting the interior space beneath one bigdome and forming amonumental architectural structure isUlucami Mosque inManisa (1374) built by the Saruhan beylik. Also worth noting is the increase in constructions of madrassas that points at the beyliks' attaching greater importance to sciences.[citation needed]
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