Anarchism in Indonesia has its roots in the anti-colonial struggle against theDutch Empire. It became an organized movement at the behest of Chinese anarchist immigrants, who played a key part in the development of the workers' movement in the country. The anarchist movement was suppressed, first by theJapanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, then by the successive regimes ofSukarno andSuharto, before finally re-emerging in the 1990s.
The first evidence of anarchism in the Dutch East Indies was present in theanti-colonial writings ofEduard Douwes Dekker, who denounced theDutch colonial administration over Indonesia, raising public awareness of the brutality inflicted against the Indonesian people. His works, including the well-known satirical novelMax Havelaar, were particularly influential among early Dutch anarchist circles.[1] His grandnephewErnest Douwes Dekker became a leading figure in the Indonesian anti-colonialist movement during the early 20th century. Ernest established contact with other radical anti-colonial activists, including the Indian anarchistsShyamji Krishna Varma andHar Dayal, whose work was published in Dekker's publicationHet Tijdschrift. Dekker aligned himself againstparliamentarism, due to the suppression of workers' rights that was carried out systematically by European parliaments. He also advocated for both violent and non-violent means of resisting colonialism, which he believed was a moral duty, and was sympathetic to the revolutionary strategy ofsyndicalism, as opposed toreformism.[2] Dekker was widely considered to be an anarchist himself and was the first native Indonesian to be known as such.[3] He later went on to found theIndische Party, one of the first political organizations established during theIndonesian National Awakening.[4]
DutchChristian anarchists, includingDirk Lodewijk Willem van Mierop, conducted propaganda work in the Dutch East Indies - publishing the periodicalLevenskracht, which advocated fornon-violence, natural living andvegetarianism. While agitating in the Dutch East Indies, van Mierop even established a local branch of the Union of Religious Anarcho-Communists.[5]Chinese anarchists also conducted propaganda work there, withZhang Ji traveling toJava in 1907, where he translated a book on the history of Chinese resistance to Dutch Colonial rule.[6] From 1909, Chinese reading houses began to open around Indonesia, being a means of political education and organization for those resisting both Dutch colonial and Chinese imperial rule.[7] After the1911 Revolution overthrew theQing dynasty, Chinese anarchists remaining in Indonesia channeled their efforts into thelabour movement, organizing the country's first workers' organizations inMakassar,Batavia,Surabaya andKupang.[8] Anarchist cells began to arise between 1914 and 1916, distributingLiu Shifu's newspaperMinsheng among the populace.[9]
Indonesiantrade unions also began to emerge around that time, many of them influenced byMarxism. They were particularly active in organizing within the ranks of theRoyal Netherlands East Indies Army, establishing a soldiers' and sailors' union that coordinated resistance duringWorld War I. On 7 May 1916, anarchist sailors inSurabaya organized awildcat strike (without the union's approval) against their poor living and working conditions, coming into direct conflict with the military police. In the subsequent repression, 5 people were injured, 47 sailors were dismissed and one of the principle organizers was imprisoned for 8 months.[10] The union leadership criticized the local branch for its lack of opposition to the strike,[11] while theSDAP leadership declared it necessary to combat the "anarchist elements" within the union,[12] and the army's high command called for unions to be separated from the armed forces entirely.[13]
After the war ended in 1918, anarchist groups began to grow larger, publishing newspapers with a broad reach throughout the country. Liu Shixin formed the "Society of Truth" group to distribute anarchist propaganda throughout the archipelago,[14] publishing theSoematra Po,[15][7] inMedan.[16] but eventually Liu's activity came to the attention of the police, who arrested the group in March 1919,[17] labelling Liu and his comrades "Bushiwei".[18] Liu Shixin was subsequently deported toChina, for his role in propagating anarcho-communist propaganda.[16] In April 1919, the Workers' Union was established by anarchists in Surabaya, growing to include branches in other cities.[19] The Union published the anarcho-communist publicationZhenli Bao inSemarang, edited by Bai Binzhou and Wang Yuting.[20] In September 1919, Binzhou and Yuting were both arrested and deported toHong Kong.[20]
Throughout the 1920s, anarchist organizations organized plantation workers, with attacks against Dutch administrators coming alongside,[21] causing many problems for the Dutch authorities, which carried out extensive searches and property seizures, confiscating any documents they found.[19] Anarchists organized strikes against theDeli Railway Company, reaching their peak in September 1920, when over 15,000 railway workers joined the strike for an increased salary.[22] When some strikers called for reprisals against Dutch officials,[23] the armed forces were brought in to break the strike and cannons were aimed at a local workers' assembly, resulting in the arrest of hundreds of workers.[24] The Dutch authorities exiled Zhang Shimei, one of the main organizers of the strike, toNew Guinea, later deporting him toSingapore.[23] Although syndicalist unions continued to operate into the late 1920s, the Chinese anarchist movement in Indonesia was largely suppressed by 1929.[25]
Indonesian students that were studying in theNetherlands, under the banner ofPerhimpoenan Indonesia, formed contact with local left-wing groups, including the Dutch anarchist movement. They formed the Indonesian section of theLeague against Imperialism, where they met with anarchistanti-militarists.[26] A few students took an interest in anarchism, includingSutan Sjahrir, who had moved to thefar-left after a short stay at an anarchistcommune, although his ideology eventually evolved intodemocratic socialism - later founding theSocialist Party of Indonesia.[27] However, Indonesians were unable to find common ground with Dutch anarchists, whoseanti-nationalism aligned them against the Indonesian desire for independence. At the1927 Brussels Conference, attended by the IndonesiansMohammad Hatta andAchmad Soebardjo,[26] the anarcho-syndicalistArthur Lehning warned colonized people against the creation of new states in the anti-imperialist struggle.[28] Similarly, at the1929 Frankfurt Conference (attended by Hatta), the anarchistBart de Ligt claimed that the construction of independentnation-states was in the interests of the colonized countries' ruling classes, who merely wished to continue their rule independently of their colonial authorities, advising instead that anti-colonialism should be bound together with anti-nationalism and anti-militarism.[29] The Frankfurt conference was also marred by a bitter division between European communists, who had taken up the party line against "social fascism" after the6th World Congress of theCommunist International, and the national liberationists includingJawaharlal Nehru and Mohammad Hatta, who were actively excluded from the League by the communists. The League eventually collapsed in the 1930s, in part due to its internal divisions.[citation needed]
Two days after thesurrender of Japan, Sukarno read out theproclamation of Indonesian Independence, marking the beginning of theIndonesian National Revolution. By this time the Indonesian anarchist movement had largely disappeared, after decades of repression by imperial powers. The newly establishedRepublic of Indonesia, with Sukarno acting as the country's firstPresident and Sutan Sjahrir as its firstPrime Minister, set about repressing the nascentanarcho-syndicalist movement. Javanese workers had spontaneously expropriated and establishedworkers' control over the country's railways, plantations and factories. Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta responded by openly attacking the syndicalist character of the new workers' movement,[30] actively repressing them and bringing their enterprises understate control by the spring of 1946.[31]
The anarchist movement re-emerged in the 1990s as part of the Indonesianpunk subculture, the largest punk movement in Southeast Asia. Young people had created their own underground sub-culture of punk, which over time developed into a style that was completely different from the original movement.[32][33] Part of the punk movement began to move towardsanti-fascist andanti-authoritarian ideology, in opposition to theNew Order dictatorship ofSuharto. In 1998, anarchist collectives began to form after thefall of Suharto, organizing discussions, publishing texts in theIndonesian language and forming non-hierarchical groups with which to conduct direct action. Some of the first groups of note wereFood Not Bombs collectives, formed to distribute food to those in need.[34]
For most of the early 2000s, the Indonesian anarchist movement remained dispersed and disconnected, with many of its groups being small and short-lived. This began to change with the organization of the 2007May Day demonstrations, when various groups from around the country unified to form the Anti-authoritarian Network, gathering over 100 people in a May Day action, marking the anarchist movement's first large-scale appearance on the public stage and igniting an acceleration of the movement's growth.[34] The next May Day demonstration in 2008 attracted more than 200 people to protest in Jakarta, directing their action against corporate and political buildings in the city. The procession ended after clashes with police saw the arrest of many of the protest's participants. Although this repression brought a brief halt to the movement's growth, anarchist activists continued their agitation, so that by 2010 there were anarchists groups inJava,Sumatra,Kalimantan,Sulawesi andBali.[34]In 2011, a series of attacks against corporate buildings andATMs in Sulawesi, Java and Sumatra were claimed by an Indonesian section of theInformal Anarchist Federation, bringing the tactics ofinsurrectionary anarchism to the country. The cell condemned peaceful protest, instead inciting direct action, often in the form of property destruction. Inspired by the actions, two anarchists Billy Augustian and Reyhard Rumbayan attacked an ATM in Yogyakarta, but were both quickly arrested after dropping incriminating evidence near the scene. Other insurrectionary anarchists of the "Long Live Luciano Tortuga" Cell in Sulawesi responded to their imprisonment with a series of attacks, including incendiary attacks on power stations and luxury cars. Further attacks from other FAI cells around Indonesia followed.[35]
In 2011, a series of attacks against corporate buildings andATMs in Sulawesi, Java and Sumatra were claimed by an Indonesian section of theInformal Anarchist Federation, bringing the tactics ofinsurrectionary anarchism to the country. The cell condemned peaceful protest, instead inciting direct action, often in the form of property destruction. Inspired by the actions, two anarchists Billy Augustian and Reyhard Rumbayan attacked an ATM in Yogyakarta, but were both quickly arrested after dropping incriminating evidence near the scene. Other insurrectionary anarchists of the "Long Live Luciano Tortuga" Cell in Sulawesi responded to their imprisonment with a series of attacks, including incendiary attacks on power stations and luxury cars. Further attacks from other FAI cells around Indonesia followed.[36]
The continuation of May Day events into the 2010s brought about a growth of interest inanarcho-syndicalism, leading to the establishment of the Workers' Power Syndicate in Surabaya, which went on to assist factory workers during industrial disputes with their employers.[37] This renewal of interest intrade unionism andsyndicalism culminated on 3 October 2012, with the country's firstgeneral strike in 50 years.[38] In 2016, the Anarcho-Syndicalist Worker's Fraternity (Indonesian:Persaudaraan Pekerja Anarko Sindikalis, PPAS) was established and affiliated to theIWA-AIT, supported by the Australian Anarcho-Syndicalist Federation. It organizes according to the principles of decentralization, equality, direct action, internationalism, solidarity, mutual cooperation, independence and the rejection of capitalism and the state.[39] It participated in the continuing May Day demonstrations, as well as workers' protests for higher wages, growing to have branches in Jakarta and Surabaya. The PPAS also organized the Independent Union of Taxi Drivers (KUMAN), uniting over 500 drivers around Indonesia and entering into a strike against Uber for higher wages and improved working conditions.[40] In response to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the PPAS made demands and organized actions in order to protect workers from the effects of the virus.[41]
In 2020, the government of Indonesia initiated a crackdown on anarchist activity, during which social media accounts were hacked, anarchist activists were arrested, books were seized, detainees were isolated. Police claimed that anarchists were planning a campaign of mass looting[42][43] and forced a confession from a criminal in which he declared himself "the sole leader of the anarchists."[44] In what many Indonesian anarchists have described as a "witch hunt",[45][46] on 9 April, three anarchists from Tangerang were arrested for spraying graffiti that read "there's a crisis already, time to burn" and "fight or perish",[42][43] being charged with public provocation.[47] The detainees were tortured by the police and were put into isolation for a month, before their trial began on 15 June.[48] The Tangerang District Court found the defendants guilty on 28 September, sentencing two to 10 months in prison and the other to 8 months, in what the defense considered to be a dangerous precedent.[49] Anarchists were also reportedly among the active participants in theprotests against the passage of theOmnibus Law on Job Creation, during which militants set fire to police stations, vandalized property and clashed with police on barricades in a number of Indonesian cities.[50] In a press conference, police announced they were investigating 6 protestors who they claimed were affiliated with the anarchist movement.[51]
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