Anarchism in Iceland is a relatively small political movement which saw a surge in activity in the early 21st century. The medievalIcelandic Commonwealth established astatelesslegal system in the country, before its colonisation by theKingdom of Denmark. After independence, anarchism slowly gained a small following in activist circles and in thepunk subculture of the 1980s. During the early 2000s, anarchists became involved in publishing and distributing anarchist texts in theIcelandic language, and some joined the environmentalist organisationSaving Iceland, which led to a resurgence in activism in the country. Anarchists achieved their greatest prominence during the2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests, in which they formed thevanguard of the movement, sharing their experience with newer activists and taking initiative indirect actions. Anarchists then participated in theconstitutional reform process of the early 2010s, which they encouraged for the use ofdirect democracy. During this period, a number of anarchist activists were elected to public office, withJón Gnarr becomingMayor of Reykjavík andBirgitta Jónsdóttir becoming amember of parliament.
Followers of theAmerican libertarian economistMurray Rothbard have cited the medievalIcelandic Commonwealth as an early example of astatelesslegal system with aprivate security apparatus.[1] Iceland later became a colony of theKingdom of Denmark, which taxed the country heavily, imposed atrade monopoly on it and left it underdeveloped, with most of the population relying onsubsistence agriculture until the country's independence in 1944.[2] An Icelandic anarchist movement did not emerge until thiscontemporary period. The first anarchist text published in theIcelandic language was a translation ofPeter Kropotkin'sMemoirs of a Revolutionist, published by theReykjavík-based publishing houseÍsafoldarprentsmiðja H.F. in 1942.[3] Anarchist sympathies in Iceland began to spread in the wake of theProtests of 1968, with the contemporary anarchist movement emerging out of thepunk subculture of the 1980s.[4]
By the 21st century, the issues ofenvironmentalism,anti-capitalism andfeminism were growing in the Icelandic popular consciousness.[5] In the early 2000s, theAndspyrna [is] group began publishing a series of Icelandic translations of anarchist texts, including works byNicolas Walter,CrimethInc. andErrico Malatesta. In 2007, it published its own primer ondirect action andcivil disobedience,Beinar Aðgerðir og Borgaraleg Óhlýðni. The group ran its own library, published and distributed anarchist literature in the Icelandic language and maintained a web portal for Icelandic activists.[3] Other Icelandic anarchists also published their own periodicals, including the monthlyRóstur and the annualSvartur Svanur. Other anarchist groups included: the Icelandic section of theNo Border network, which provided support to asylum seekers and refugees; and the Reykjavík chapter ofFood Not Bombs. In the Icelandic capital, many anarchist activists met at theKaffi Hljómalind [is], acooperativecafé which also functioned as a community centre.[6] But the anarchist movement lacked apolitical organisation and it was largelymarginalised from wider society, with the movement numbering no more than a few dozen people.[4]
In the mid-2000s, the environmentalist groupSaving Iceland, which had notablegreen anarchist tendencies, carried out a number of direct actions against the construction of a hydroelectric plant in the east of the country.[7] Anarchist activists in Saving Iceland reported that its activities led to a resurgence in the country's social movements, which had been largely dormant over the previous decades.[8]
The introduction ofneoliberalism to Iceland in the late 20th century resulted in a pronouncedboom and bust cycle, with the country seeing rapid economic growth until the2008 financial crash, when theexternal debt owed by Icelandic banks rose dramatically.[9] The collapse of the country's three major banks resulted in theIcelandic króna losing its value, causing a large rise ininflation.[10] Widespread disillusionment in the government and financial sector led to a mobilisation of protest activity, largely drawing its support from theleft-wing andanti-corruption movements.[11] In September 2008, anarchist activists began holding meetings in cafes and private homes, where they discussed how to coordinate action in response to the financial crisis.[12]
By the time protests began to mobilise, there were roughly 70 anarchists in Reykjavík; despite their small size, they were able to gain a significant influence over the protest movement.[4] The so-calledPots and Pans Revolution began in October 2008, with a series of peacefulpolitical demonstrations outside theAlthing calling for the resignation of the government.[13] The lack of a government response to the crisis culminated with the closing of the parliament for Christmas break, which exacerbated public anti-establishment sentiment.[14] On 21 December 2008, anarchist activists stormed theNational Theatre of Iceland, where they aimed to convince theSocial Democratic Alliance (SDA) to break away from the government led by the right-wingIndependence Party (IP).[15]
When Parliament resumed on 20 January 2009, tens of thousands of people held a demonstration outside the building, where people openly talked of revolution.[14] Most participants in the protests had no connection to existing social movements, and many had previously been disinterested in politics.[16] Iceland's small anarchist movement was in thevanguard of the protest movement, providing it with their expertise as seasoned activists and taking the initiative in direct actions, but the movement was largelydecentralised andorganised horizontally.[17] The protest movements demands, which were largely focused on the resignation of the government and financial officials, was infused with an undertone ofanti-statism by the anarchist participants.[18]
At the protests, young anarchists also formed links with an older generation of activists who were active in the anti-NATO movement of the 1950s and 1960s, which strengthened both movements across generational lines.[19] When some protestors threw food at police, they responded by attacking the protestors.[20] For the first time since the1949 anti-NATO riot in Iceland, Icelandic police used tear gas against civilian activists.[21] By the end of January, the protests had succeeded in toppling thegovernment;[22] a newcentre-left coalition waselected in its place.[23] The anarchist collectiveAftaka reported that the government had been brought down after "simply ordinary people" had taken to civil disobedience, direct action and sabotage.[24]
During the subsequent2010 Icelandic municipal elections, the anarcho-surrealistBest Party, which ran on a platform ofdebt abolition, won 34.72% of the vote in Reykjavík; party leaderJón Gnarr, himself inspired byMikhail Bakunin and Peter Kropotkin, became thecity's mayor.[25] After observing the popular opposition to neoliberalism in Iceland, the American anarchistDavid Graeber told Gnarr that he believed Iceland was likely to become a "genuinely free society" within his lifetime.[26] Gnarr himself believed that Iceland had the potential to become an "anarcho-socialist country" and encouraged people to move to the country to help make that a reality.[5] When theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) offered a loan to bail out the banks, it was overwhelmingly rejected in the2010 Icelandic loan guarantees referendum.[9]
Meanwhile, the centre-left government promised to carry out aconstitutional reform process, which was complemented by agrassroots movement for systematic change.[27]Popular assemblies were held in conjunction with the newly-establishedNational Assembly, during which activists coordinated working groups to oversee the direction of reform.[28] Anarchist activists were initially enthusiastic about the process, as it gave rise to moredirect democracy and greaterpublic participation in decision-makingy.[29] The following year, aConstitutional Assembly was elected and the new draft constitution wasapproved in a referendum, but the centre-left government failed to implement the new constitution.[30]
By this time, the government had lost the confidence of the protest movement due to its implementation ofausterity measures.[23] Parliamentary disagreements over the constitution culminated in the2013 Icelandic parliamentary election, when a newright-wing coalition government was brought to power and blocked the passage of the constitution, while the left-wing fragmented and declined.[31] The only anti-austerity activists who gained seats in the election were those of thePirate Party,[32] founded by the anarchistWikiLeaks activistBirgitta Jónsdóttir.[5]
Since the protest movement, anarchist activists have noted a wider interest in political discussion and participation. According to one activist, the resignation of the pre-2008 government made many people feel empowered and led to people seeing themselves as playing an active role in the shaping of society. The entry of the Pirate Party and the Best Party into politics also made more space forradical views, particularly onpolitical transparency.[33] The failure of the centre-left government to pass the constitution also reinforced anarchist critiques of the state system, with some coming to feel that the rise of the subsequent right-wing government had resulted in the preservation of political corruption in the country.[34] In 2014, Jon Gnarr resigned as mayor of Reykjavík and abandoned politics.[35] Despite its shortcomings, anarchist activists largely look back on the protest movement positively, as it led to a resurgence in activism against austerity and in support of other causes, including theFree Gaza Movement.[36]
In 2017, Icelandic anarchistHaukur Hilmarsson travelled toNorthern Syria and volunteered to join theRevolutionary Union for Internationalist Solidarity (RUIS), a Greek anarchist detachment fighting in theSyrian Civil War.[37] He was killed by theTurkish Armed Forces in early 2018, while fighting against theTurkish invasion ofAfrin.[38] He has since been held up as amartyr byanti-fascists.[39]
Around this time, former Reykjavík mayor Jón Gnarr returned to politics and joined the Social Democratic Alliance, but found that his anarchist belief in individual freedom distinguished him from other social democrats. He subsequently joined theLiberal Reform Party and ran on its list in the2024 Icelandic parliamentary election.[40]
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