Anarchism in Greece traces its roots toancient Greece but was formed as a political movement during the 19th century. It was in the ancient era that the firstlibertarian thoughts appeared whenphilosophers based onrationality questioned the fundamentals of tradition. Modern anarchism in Greece emerged in the 19th century, heavily influenced by the contemporaryEuropean classical anarchism. Because of theBolshevik success in theRussian Revolution of 1917 and the rise of theCommunist Party, anarchism faded after the first decades of the 20th century.The collapse of the military junta put an end to the monopoly of the political power from the Right, whereasthe dissolution of the Soviet Union diminished the allure of theCommunist Party of Greece allowing anarchist groups to gain pace inAthens and other cities.
Beliefs, opinions and sentiments that are close to anarchist core values were expressed in Ancient Greece. With the appearance ofpresocratic thought, rational inquiry during the classical and Hellenistic period, challenged traditional beliefs, religion and authority itself.Socrates skepticism towards the state and its passionate support of the individual's moral freedom were among the first-ever libertarian critiques.[1]Cynics' contribution to philosophical anarchism was the distinction between the man-made laws and nature's law, fiercely rejecting the former.[2]Stoics followed the same worldview andZeno of Citium, the main stoic philosopher, received the admiration of 19th-century anarchist, Piotr Kropotkin, who was impressed byZeno's Republic- a community based onegalitarianism and friendly relations.[3] A powerful play resonating with anarchism wasAntigone, bySophocles, where a young woman defies the orders of the Ruler and acts according to her consciousness.[4]
According to some academics, shortly before and after the end ofOttoman rule in Greece, the socioeconomic relations of the Greek countryside reflected traits of Bakunian collectivism (decentralization and autonomy) creating a future audience for anarchist ideas.[5] Discussing the second half of the 19th century, a source argued that the level of anarchist activity in the Ottoman Empire was comparable to that in Europe.[6] Some of the Greek anarchists were born in the Ottoman Empire, for example Emmanouil Dadaoglou was fromİzmir.[7]
According to a study of anarchism in the lateOttoman Empire by Axel Corlu, Greek anarchists were significantly less than theirArmenian orBulgarian counterparts in the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 19th century. Corlu suggests that Greek anarchists were mostly focused in influencing events, struggles and structures in the Greek state rather than the Ottoman Empire.[7]
Early anarchism in Greece traces to the mid-19th century and lasted throughWorld War II.[8] EarlyGreek socialist thought was dominated by anarchism.[9] The most influential anarchist authors in Greek at the time wereBakunin,Andrea Costa,Kropotkin, andJean Grave;[9] for comparison,Marx andEngels were not translated in Greek until 1893.[10] Individuals having ties withItaly and Italian immigrants imported anarchism to theGreek mainland with theIonian islands as a midpoint. Geographical proximity to Italy and a large Italian political immigrant community dating back to the1848 revolutions explains why theport town ofPatras saw the first organized anarchist group.[11][12] Patras had organized meeting places, a viable local press and publishing activity.[13] Various individuals were inspired by the expansion ofEuropean classical anarchism. The first anarchist publication in Greece appeared in September 1861, in the daily newspaperΦώς (Light), issue 334. In the main article of the paper, titled "Anarchy," part A, the writer, Dimos Papathanasiou, employed classicalanti-authoritarian rhetoric, characterized anarchy as the greatest good and claimed that state authorities live at the expense of the people.[14][15][16]
The first Greek-organized anarchist group was the Democratic Club of Patras (Δημοκρατικός Σύλλογος Πάτρας). Founded in 1876 and affiliated with the anti-authoritarianJura Federation of theFirst International,[8][14] the Democratic Club helped to create afederated network of similar Greek groups. They also published the first anarchist newspaper in Greece,Greek Democracy (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία).[17] In its declaration of principles, the Democratic Club claimed that "poverty and ignorance are the greatest wounds of the people" and supported the liberation of Greeks in theOttoman Empire.[18] Emmanouil Dadaoglou and the ItalianAmilcare Cipriani were involved in the club's founding, having previously participated with other anarchists in the1862 Athens uprising, though details of Dadaoglou's life are unverified.[19]
In 1876, the Democratic Club sent a greeting message to theInternational Anarchist Congress in Bern, and in December it accedes to the decisions of the congress.[20] The same year, an anarchist working club was founded inSyros.[8] In 1877, the Democratic Club took part in the Universal Socialist Congress inGhent, where it was represented by Italian anarchistAndrea Costa. The firstgovernment crackdown on members of the club followed soon afterwards. Its members were jailed for months after being accused of a conspiracy against the king, only being released after an intervention by parliamenent member R. Choidas.[20] It played an instrumental role in thetannery and shipyard strikes of 1879.[8]
In theLavrion mines, the influence of anarchist and socialist politicized foreign workers (mostly from Italy and Spain) played a vital role in a series ofanarcho-syndicalist leaning strikes in the mines during the late 19th century.[21] The most famous of which took place in 1896 inLavrio. It was organized by the anarchist union Kosmos and was accompanied bydynamite attacks, resulting in several casualties both among the workers and the mining company's guards.[22][23] Despite the periodic success of Greek anarchists in mobilizing theworking class, the number of core members of anarchist clubs remained small. In 1892, the clubs in Patras, Athens and Pyrgos had 40, ten and 7 members respectively.[24]
Pyrgos, aPeloponnese city close to Patras, was another place where anarchist ideas flourished along with othersocialist currents. The fight againstloan sharks and the heavytaxation by the state fueled anarchist thought among smallraisin producers in the Peloponnese which was the home of various anarchist groups in the late 19th century.New Light (Νέον Φως) was a western Peloponnese weekly newspaper that voiced anarchist ideas (local and international). It was first published in October 1898 by the lawyerVasileios Theodoridis. Its aim was to unify the subversive people of the Western Peloponnese to face social problems. The newspaper contained articles by Drakoulis, translations of the works ofPavlos Argyriadis, republications of texts that first appeared in Athenian magazines, and news about the Greek and the internationallabor movement. It also containedadages of the Orthodox Church Fathers andCharles Fourier as well as translations of texts by Bakunin, Kropotkin and Girard.[25]
The anarchist groups of the Peloponnese were the strongest in Greece until the early 20th century. They conducted livelypropaganda work in the cities and their surroundings as opposed to"authoritarian" socialists who were more interested inparliamentary politics. They encouragedabstention in the elections of 1899 and mobilized against loan sharks and taxation in the name of raisin producers. They did not seek the support of the state to confront the current crisis but they denounced instead state mechanisms of oppression.[26]
Zestful socialistStavros Kallergis was arguing inThe Socialist (a newspaper he was editing) that socialism is the path towards Anarchism.The Socialist funneling the contemporary socialist thought of Europe into Greece, ranging from moderate socialist to anarchist opinions, over the course of the 1890s.[27]
Persecution against anarchists intensified in the summer of 1894. The assassination ofSadi Carnot by an anarchist led to a barrage of attacks against the anarchists by the press, and in particular byAsty, the official organ ofCharilaos Trikoupis' party. Many anarchists and socialists were put on trial and this led others to either flee the country or relocate in isolated parts of Greece. Similarly, many radical publications closed down and mainstream activity was reduced.[28]
In 1896 in Patras, Dimitrios Matsalis, a sandal maker, murdered Dionysios Fragkopoulos, a banker and currant merchant, and injured Andreas Kollas. He declared, "I acted alone. By killing I did not aim at people but I stroke the capital. I am an anarchist, and as an anarchistI am in favor of violence." He committed suicide in prison. Fragkopoulos' assassination arguably intensified the erosion ofcollective identities as the persecutions continued.[29][30]
Persecuted anarchists and anarcho-syndicalists fled from Patras during the last years of the 19th century. The persecution began right after theInternational Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists, leading many anarcho-syndicalists that moved toAthens to establish the Anarchist Workers Association (Αναρχικός 'Εργατικός Σύνδεσμος). They took part in the anarchist international congress held in Paris in 1900.[31] Epi ta Proso (Επί τα πρόσω) was another group of anarchist intellectuals publicly advocating for anarchism in the Peloponnese that finally ended up in Athens before being dissolved.[32]
As in the rest of Europe by that time, the so-calledpropaganda of the deed was employed by theBoatmen of Thessaloniki, a group ofBulgarian anarchists based inSalonica (then part of theOttoman Empire),[8][33][34] andAlexandros Schinas, who assassinatedKing George I in 1913 for reasons of either anarchist conviction or mental illness.[35]
In 1916, the anarcho-syndicalist Konstantinos Speras was a key organizer of aminers strike in the island ofSerifos.[8] The strike was violently opposed by the police, leading to the death of four workers and wounding others.[36] The workers, supported by their wives, responded by throwing stones, killing three of the police and routing the others away.[37] Although the strike was organized by an anarchist and the workers took control of municipal buildings (telegraph tower, police headquarters, town hall), the strikers raised a French flag and asked for protection from the French fleet, which at the time had ships stationed in the neighboring island ofMilos.[38][39] The strike and the aftermath resulted in the improvement of working conditions in the mines and the first application of the8-hour working day in modern Greece.[37][38][39]
The Greek anarchist movement's momentum subsided in the 1920s as, among many factors, the Greek working class turned toMarxist ideology and theCommunist Party of Greece, known for its hostility towards anarchists, was founded.[40] Reflecting popular Greek desire for a strong state, an organized anarchist movement was dismantled in the 1930s and 1940s, between the effects of theMetaxas Regime, theAxis occupation of Greece, and theGreek Civil War.[41] In times of changing government, Greeks relied on local government for resistance and security.[42]
An important figure of Greek anarchism isPlotino Rhodakanaty, born in 1828. His birthplace is disputed, some authors cite Athens, others cite other European capitals.[43] Nevertheless, he is considered one of the most important figures inMexican socialist thought.[44]
The new phase of the Greek anarchist movement began as part of the resistance to theGreek military junta of 1967–1974. In this period, Greek anarchism broke away from its anarcho-syndicalist origins and became organized around smalldirect action groups. Students played a significant role in this new phase.[45] Students returning fromParis, where they had taken part in theevents of May 1968 and been introduced to leftist and anarchist ideas, started spreading these ideas among the radical youth. In 1972,Guy Debord'sThe Society of the Spectacle was published in Athens, along with otherSituationist texts.Mikhail Bakunin'sGod and the State andPeter Kropotkin'sLaw and Authority followed. In 1971, Diethnis Vivliothiki (International Library),a publishing and political team was founded.Christos Konstantinidis was one of the founding figures, and translators such as Agis Stinas contributed. TheBlack Rose bookshop carried publications of Diethnis Vivliothiki.[46]
Interest in anarchism swelled with the anti-junta movement, and the 1973Athens Polytechnic uprising was a flash-point for the junta's opposition.[47] The group that initiated the Polytechnic uprising included a minority of anarchists and leftists. The moderator of the anarchist group wasChristos Konstantinidis.[48] Anarchists were branded asprovocateurs by theCommunist Youth of Greece as they expressed slogans not directly related to the student's demands (i.e. they were calling forsexual freedom,social revolution and theabolition of the State). The resonance with the French 1968 movement was clear.[49] Some demonstrators also used slogans with anarchist overtones, such as "Down with Authority" and "People Revolt."[47] The uprising is commemorated annually with a multi-day march; anarchists often use the occasion to denounce the political regime of the day. The annual protests promote a subculture that seesresistance to authority as one's duty.[50]
On 4 May 1976, the firstautonomous anarchist rally took place atPropylaea. The aim was to express political andpacifist messages, while the country was facing severe issues with its neighbor country, Turkey. Some major slogans of the demonstration were "Turkish workers are our brothers" and "TheAegean Sea belongs to its fish."
Greek anarchism remained a smallsubculture after the fall of the junta but grew into a movement following riots in 1981.[51] In December 1979, protests took place as theKonstantinos Karamanlis government voted in the statutory act no. 815, which aimed to reduce the university exam periods and set a time limit on the allowed length of period.[52] The university occupation movement of 1979–1981 was largely instigated by anarchist and leftist groups. Near the Polytechnic, the neighborhood ofExarcheia became a"free zone," where leftists, anarchists,hippies, and others were in charge.[53] Throughout the late 20th century, Greek radical leftists referred to their cause by various names (autonomous, anti-authority, alternative) while police and the public generally labeled all revolutionary leftists as "anarchists."[54]
On 17 November 1980, a large student demonstration took place to commemorate the abolishment of Greek junta. Severestreet fights occurred, and two protesters were killed.[55] In 1981, whenPASOK (The PanHellenic Socialist Movement) came to power, there was a decline of the extra parliamentary left. A big moment that helped attest to the self-confidence of the anarchist movement were protests to a far-right conference hosted at the hotel Caravel (among the participants wasJean-Marie Le Pen ofAction Française).[56][55] The meeting was disrupted and confrontational tactics and street fighting became a trademark of a new major Greek social movement.[57]
Demonstrations and clashes between anarchists and police took place almost daily in Athens between 1985 and 1986.[58] The confrontation between the police and anarchists escalated during the 1985 Polytechnic uprising anniversary demonstration when a group of anarchists set ariot police car on fire. One of theriot policemen (MAT, Units for the Reinstatement of Order), Athanassios Melistas, shot a 15-year-old anarchist,Michalis Kaltezas, in the back of the head, killing him instantly and sparking large riots in Athens and Thessaloniki and the occupation of the University of Athens's Chemistry Department. Police forces entered the university the next morning after receiving permission from the Commission of University Asylum, whose president was Dean Michalis Stathopoulos. There was a heavy use oftear gas and a brutal arrest of 37 people. The anarchist movement staged demonstrations with thousands of participants in Athens. In retaliation against Melistas, theMarxist-LeninistRevolutionary Organization 17 November killed Nikolaos Georgakopoulos and injured fourteen other MAT officers in a 1985police bus bombing.[59][60]
The anarchists proposals were in contrast to the legalistic approach of theGreek Communist Party, which at the time was enjoying parliamentary participation.[61][55] Exarcheia became increasingly perceived as ano-go zone for police, as clashes occurred merely with the sight of officers.[62]
Alternative media andpunk subcultures proliferated anarchist thought among Greek youth in the 1980s and 1990s, spreading messages againstneoliberalism,reactionary populism,liberal democracy, andthe state.[63] By the late 1980s, anarchism had turned towards a broader spectrum of issues: gender inequalitiy, patriarchy, racism towards immigrants, andethnic minority repression (Slavic and Turkish). Anarchistsquats emerged in this era, among whichVilla Amalia and Villa Lela Karagianni were the most prominent.[64]
Thecollapse of the USSR had a profound impact not only on anarchism but on the international circumstances of Greece as well. Greek anarchism reached a peak of activity between 1989 and 1995, reinforced by a disappointment with Greek mainstream politics.[47] The 1990–93Mitsotakis government agenda included an attempt to enforceneoliberal policies. The 1990s was the era that the anti-authoritarian movement became more prominent and had active participation amongstudent riots against government plans for theprivatization of the education sector.[47] The most circulated publications of the era wereThe Void Network andThe Children of the Gallery.[65]
In the new millennium, with capitalism and neoliberalism viewed as advancing throughout the world, Greek anarchists participated in theanti-globalization movement.[66] New collectives, such as the Antieksousiastiki Kinisi in Exarcheia and its associated newspaper,Babylonia, became popular among rebellious youth.[67]Athens Indymedia and Antieksousiastiki Kinisi were founded in 2001 and 2003 respectively.[68]
On 6 December 2008, the lethal shooting of 15-year-oldAlexandros Grigoropoulos by a policeman in the Exarcheia district in Athens, generated immediatesocial unrest that quickly escalated intolarge-scale riots. The significant repercussions that followed were the most intense to occur in Greece since thefall of themilitary dictatorship.[69] Within a short period of time, anarchists, leftists, and sympathizers rioted and attacked banks, police vehicles and government offices in the area with unusual coordination. The fact that the murder of Alexandros occurred in Exarcheia was of major symbolic significance, as police presence in the area was considered to be an intrusion to a "ground occupied by the antagonistic movement" and was felt by some as an attack against the anarchist movement.[70]
The Greek Government of the time (Prime MinisterKonstantinos A. Karamanlis) chose to have a 'defensive' approach on the events that were taking place. The aim was to avoid furthercivil disorder and instances of potential violence. Other political parties tried to take advantage of the situation and organized nine demonstrations in three days.[71]
The parliament building was besieged for weeks by angry crowds. For a month, large protests were taking place in many major Greek cities, with a lot of them resulting in conflict with the police and arson attacks on government buildings, shops and banks.[72] On multiple occasions during the attacks, the violence against the police resulted in officers getting shot and/or severely wounded.[73] An anarchist form ofillegalism re-emerged during the insurrection when anarchist stole food from stores to distribute to people in need.[74]Athens Indymedia, an open publishing, anti-authoritarian site which attracted significant audience during the 2008 revolt, paralleled the expansion of the anarchistchoros within the Greek society.[75] (Chóros, meaning "scene" or "milieu" in Greek, is the body ofloosely associated anarchist groups andcollectives in Greece.[76])
The rebellion that took place in 2008 was fueled, in part, by the prevailing economic insecurity.[77] Anarchist groups organized and participated in protests against theausterity measures implemented by the government to resolve theeconomic crisis that was precipitated by thesovereign debt crisis.[78] Certain anarchist groups and networks, in conjunction with activists affiliated to anarchist and libertarian ideas, during the beginning of the crisis, differentiated themselves from violence, becoming engaged inself-organization activities[79] Spontaneous networks of students and other radicals were formed that followed an anarchistic approach on how they function. The influence of traditionalMarxism was minimal.[80]
In May 2010, asignificant wave of protest occurred when the Greek parliament voted on itsfirst austerity memorandum.[81] During the protest, apetrol bombwas fired at the Marfin Bank inStadiou Street and caused the deaths of three bank employees.[82] After this tragic event, there was a notable drop in the attendance and frequency of protests, and more importantly the "ideological legitimacy",[83] and anarchist momentum eased.[84] However, no evidence about the perpetrator being an anarchist was provided, and the accused anarchist was declared innocent in the court.[85] Several anarchist groups had been vocal about condemning theuse of violence as a practice at Marfin and other such instances.[86]
In 2013, there were several protests when anarchist Nikos Romanos was arrested forbank robbery and the policedigitally altered hismug shot in order to cover several bruises that wereinflicted during his arrest.Amnesty International described this as a "culture of abuse and impunity in the Greek police".[87]
As of 2013, anarchist groups that have claimed responsibility for violent attacks include the Lovers of Lawlessness, Wild Freedom and Instigators of Social Explosion, Gangs of Consciousness, Lonely Wolf, the Untouchable Cell of Revenge and Untamed Desires.[88]
In 2017,Interpol claimed Greece was one of the only threeEuropean Union countries (along withItaly andSpain) that appear to be dealing withanarchist terrorism.[89]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)