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Naqada I

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Archaeological culture of prehistoric Upper Egypt

Naqada I
(3900—3500 BC)
Naqada I ivory statuettes of men with penile sheathes (El Mahasna left, andNaqada right,c.3900-3600 BCE).[1] el-Amra Naqada Badari Aswan
Dates	c.3750 BC —c.3500 BC.[2]^[3]
Major sites	El-Amrah,Naqada
Preceded by	Tasian culture,Badari culture,Merimde culture
Followed by	Naqada II (Gerzeh culture)

TheNaqada I culture, originally called theAmratian culture, was the first Pre-dynasticarchaeological culture ofprehistoric Egypt, centering onUpper Egypt.^[4] Depending on the sources, it lasted approximately from 3,750 to 3,500 BC,^[2] fromc. 4,000/3,900 to c. 3,600 BC,[5]^[6] or from 4,000 to 3,500 BC.^[7] It corresponds to the originalFlinders Petrie "Sequence Dates" SD 31–37.^[8]

All Nadaqa I sites are located in Upper Egypt, ranging from Matmar in the north, to Kubaniya and Khor Bahan in the south.^[9] The Amratian/ Naqada I culture is broadly similar to the previousBadarian culture, and may to some extent be considered as a later variation, characterized with more diversity in the types of graves, and therefore the appearance of a level of social hierarchy.^[9]

Overview

The Amratian culture is named after the archaeological site ofel-Amrah, located around 120 km (75 mi) south of Badari in Upper Egypt. El-Amrah was the first site where this culture group was found without being mingled with the laterGerzeh culture (Naqada II). However, this period is better attested at theNagada site, thus it also is referred to as theNaqada I culture.^[10]

Naqada I site are only known from the area ofUpper Egypt, with sites ranging fromBadari in the north to a few sites inAswan in Lower Nubia.^[11]

Pottery types

The Naqada I period corresponds to the maximum development of black-topped red ware, as well as wares with painted white motifs on a polished red background.^[12]

Naqada I pottery, perFlinders Petrie

Naqada I pottery mainly used one type of clay: a grey clay from the alluvium of the Nile, which is rich inferrous oxide and becomes red to brown upon firing in an oxidizing environment.^[13]

Naqada I had four types of potteries, which were categorized chronologically by Petrie from SD ("Sequence Date") 30 to 37:^[14]^[13]

Black Top ware (type "B", all Naqada I): Polished red body with black top
Polished Red ware (type "P", all Naqada I): red polished pottery
White cross-lined ware (type "C", Naqada IC): Polished red body with white painting
Fancy Forms ware (type "F", Naqada IC): Pottery with fancy shapes or animal-shaped

Black-topped pottery ("B-ware")

Black-top red ware. Naqada I-first half of Naqada II. 3800-3400 BCE. Louvre Museum

Main article:Black-topped pottery

Red-bodied black-topped pottery, already found in theBadarian culture was continuously produced. The red color of the body was a natural result of firing Nilotic clay rich in ferrous oxide, but the black top was obtained by exposing the top portion of the vessels to dense black soot.^[15]^[16] Although mostly characteristic of Naqada I, this type continued to be produced throughout the whole Naqada period.

Black-topped Red Ware beaker
Ovoid Naqada I (Amratian) black-topped terracotta vase, c. 3800–3500 BC
Black-topped red ware jar
A "fancy" (Type "F") shape: double vase. Louvre Museum.^[17]

Cross-lined pottery (C-ware)

C-ware, Naqada I

White cross-lined pottery (C-ware) were a type of painted pottery essentially specific to Naqada I. Compared to the total number of ceramics produced, only very few of them were painted. The painting technique too was different from Naqada II, in that white or cream white painting was used over a red background, while Naqada II used brown painting over cream-bodied pottery.^[18] These vessels were found in graves, but were also used in daily life.^[18] In addition to the different types of ceramic base and the different colors used for painting, the types of drawings and well as their style also differ widely between Naqada I and Naqada II.^[18] White cross-lined pottery on a red background often used close parallel white lines being crossed by another set of close parallel white lines.^[15] Overall, the layout of drawing in C-ware was more free than that of the Naqada D-ware, a possible consequence of increased hierarchy and control in society.^[18]

C-ware covers a period from 3,900 to 3,650 BC, and was produced from Naqada IA to Naqada IIA and Naqada IIB, before vanishing.^[18] Some paintings also depict a triumphant warrior with his captives, a likely prototype of later scenes of pharaohs smiting their enemies.^[19]

Geometric symbols and natural scenes

Red pottery bowl or drinking vessel with interior geometric decoration.
Vase, Amratian, Naqada I
C-ware jar with animals. Circa 3700 BC.^[20] Naqada IC.^[21]
Double jar with animals being hunted

Human figures

Vase with victorious human figure, and smaller individuals attached with a rope at the neck. Naqada IC-IIA (c. 3800-3600 BC). Royal Museums of Art and History, E3002.^[22]^[23]

A few scenes on Cross-lined pottery (C-ware) depict human figures of the Naqada I period. One depicts a hunter brandishing a bow and holding four dogs on leashes.^[24] Several other scenes depicts hunters using harpoons, or herders guiding animals. One scene even seems to represent a man on a boat fishing.^[25]^[26]

One of the most famous and ambitious scenes is depicted onJar E3002 in the Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels, dated to Naqada IC-IIA (c. 3800-3600 BC).^[27] It shows eight individuals in a warlike scene. Two tall figures, equipped with long feathers in their heads, short curly hair, a penile sheath and seemingly an animal tail attached at their waist, raise their arms above their heads in an apparent sign of victory.^[22] The smaller figures are apparently arm-less, have flowing hair, and the phallus appears as a curved handle.^[28] Four of the smaller figures are attached to the central victor with ropes at their necks.^[22]^[29]

These scenes of warfare in the Nile Valley are dated to Naqada IC, and may be a prelude to future scenes of Pharaohs smiting their enemies.^[29] The scene is similar to that depicted in another vase with a victorious or dancing figure holding a prisoner, now in the Petrie Museum.^[30]^[31]^[32] The raised arms posture of the victor would appear in many statuettes and pottery paintings of the Naqada II period, but as an essentially female posture.^[28]

Although men with beards are ubiquitous in sculptural works at the end of the period, they never appear in pottery paintings.^[33]

Plate with hunter with dogs on leash. Naqada I.Pushkin Museum.^[24]^[34]
Detail of a plate with hunter with dogs on leash. Naqada I.Pushkin Museum.^[24]^[35]
Victorious figure with prisoner, or dancing scene.^[36]^[37]^[32]
Man on a boat fishing. Naqada I, ca. 3700 BC.^[25]^[38]
Hunter using a harpoon. Circa 3650–3500 BC. Late Naqada I–early Naqada II
Prisoners scene, Abydos, U-415/1.^[39]^[40]

Burials

A Naqada IB-IC burial assemblage (SD 34), with ivory tags, female statuettes, animal depictions and a variety of pottery (Grave B101, Abadiya). Ashmolean Museum

The period of Naqada I sees the appearance of early forms of artifacts that would become characteristic of the later Naqada periods: ivory tags, simple statuettes.^[41]

In the area of pottery, black-topped red pottery was the main style, with some white cross-lined pottery ("C-ware") and red polished ware ("R-ware").^[42]^[43] Rough pottery (type "R") also started to appear during this period.^[43]

Known Naqada I cemeteries occupy a rather limited geographical area and are essentially located in the area around Naqada, including the cemeteries of Matmar, Salmany,Naqada andArmant.^[44]

Commerce and crafts

Vessel with "Dancing" Women. Predynastic Vessel. Naqada IC, circa 3700 BC, from the tomb U-502 atUmm el-Qaab, Abydos (Cairo Museum, JE 99583).^[45]

Trade between the Amratian culture bearers in Upper Egypt and populations ofLower Egypt is attested during this time through new excavated objects. A stone vase from the north has been found at el-Amrah. The predecessorBadarian culture had also discovered thatmalachite could be heated intocopper beads;^[a] the Amratians shaped this metal by chipping.^[46]Obsidian and a very small amount ofgold were both imported fromNubia during this time.^[10]^[15] Trade with theoases also was likely.^[10] Cedar was imported fromByblos,marble fromParos, as well asemery fromNaxos.^[46]

New innovations such asadobe buildings, for which the Gerzeh culture is well known, also begin to appear during this time, attesting to cultural continuity. However, they did not reach nearly the widespread use that they were known for in later times.^[47] Additionally, oval andtheriomorphic cosmetic palettes appear to be used in this period. However, the workmanship was still very rudimentary and the relief artwork for which they were later known is not yet present.^[48]

Each Amratian village had an animal deity;amulets were worn of humans and various animals including birds and fish. Food, weaponry, statuettes, decorations, malachite, and occasionally dogs were buried with the deceased.^[46]

Clay figure, Egypt Naqada I period, circa 4000 BC. RMO Leiden
Egyptian disk-shapedmacehead, 4000–3400 BCE. At the end of the period, it was replaced by the superior Mesopotamian-style pear-shaped macehead, as seen on theNarmer Palette.^[49]
Decorated ivory combs. Late Naqada I-Naqada II , 3900-3500 BC

Early cosmetic palettes

Main article:Cosmetic palette

Siltstone was first utilized for cosmetic palettes by theBadari culture. The first palettes used in the Badarian Period and in Naqada I were usually plain, rhomboidal or rectangular in shape, without any further decoration. It is in theNaqada II period in which thezoomorphic palette is most common.

Mudstone cosmetic palette in the form of a turtle with inlaid bone eyes (one missing). Predynastic, Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC. EA 37913 (British Museum)
Mudstone palette in the form of a hippopotamus. Predynastic, Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC. EA 29416. (British Museum)
Naqada I–II palette for blending cosmetics
Palette in the shape of a boat, 3700–3600 BC, Naqada I

Stoneware

Various example ofbasaltic polished stoneware, sometimes called "Black Polished Ware", are known from the Naqada I period, particularly from the area ofAbydos.^[50]

Naqada I basalt vessel. Louvre Museum.^[50]
Naqada I basalt vessel. Louvre Museum
Basalt vessel with inscription, Naqada I

Penile sheathes

Figure of a man, Naqada I, 3800-3650. Brooklyn Museum.^[51]

Statuette of a man with penile sheath, and various ivory tusks. Tomb H29,El Mahasna. Naqada I (c.3900-3600 BC).^[52]^[53]

Seated man with penis sheath. Naqada I. Abadiya, grave B119. Ashmolean Museum.^[54]

Numerous male statuettes from the Naqada I-III period are shown displaying penile sheaths, a characteristic attribute of many hunter-gatherer societies.^[55] Such depictions appear inHierakonpolis,Abydos, on theGebel el-Arak Knife, or on the golden statuettes ofTell el-Farkha.^[55] They were held in place by leather strings tied at the waist, and possible at the bottom as well.^[55]

It has been suggested that many of the decorated rhinoceros tusks also found in tombs of the period may be the very penile sheaths depicted in these statuettes, or at least symbolic representations of them.^[55]^[56] Penile sheath (karnatiw) may also have been used for medical reasons, in a mistaken attempt to avoidschistosomiasis and contamination bycercariae.^[57]

Rather similar figures, using similar ivory material, also appear in the contemporary archaeology of theLevant Chalcolithic (4500-3500 BC), suggesting a level of trade relations and cultural influence from Egypt at that time.^[58]

Female statuettes

Various female statuettes from Naqada I have been found, mainly made of ivory and bone.^[59] A few broadly similar ivory statuettes are already known from the precedingBadarian period.^[60]

Early Naqada I statuettes.^[61]^[62] Petrie dated these statuettes to SD 31-34.^[63]
Figurines of bone and ivory. Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC.^[64]
Female statuette, Naqada IC.^[65] Alternatively dated Naqada II-III.^[66]

Bearded figures

Ivory tusk with bearded figure,Badari tomb 3165, dated SD 37-38 (Naqada IC-Naqada IIA).

Tall bearded figures with hats seem to appear towards the end of the Naqada I period, specifically during Naqada IC.^[67] Many such figurines have pointed beards, and some trace of hair.^[68] There are often indications of clothing, and they may represent people dressed in long cloaks.^[68] Bearded men also appear in many other pre-dynastic artifacts, such as theGebel el-Arak Knife.^[69] The headgear of theMesopotamian-style "Lord of Animals" on the Gebel el-Arak knife may also be comparable to the torus-shaped headgear visible on many of the Naqada I figurines.^[69]

The depiction of the hat is often considered as a possible predecessor and one of the earliest representation of the EgyptianWhite Crown: "Together this knob-like element together with the elongated form of the head are striking in their resemblance to the tapering bulb-shape of the later White Crown."^[70]

Many anthropomorphic ivory tags showing bearded individuals were found in Naqada graves dated to the Naqada IC-IIA period, with only a few specimens in Naqada IIB. These have been found in the same graves as anthropomorphic tusk and simple animal ivory tags, indicating contemporaneity between these objects.^[71]

A bearded figure atop an ivory tusk was excavated fromBadari tomb 3165 and dated SD 37-38, at the intermediate period between Naqada IC and Naqada IIA. This is one of the rare such figurines to have been excavated in a secure archaeological excavation, making it pivotal in determining their antiquity.^[72]^[73]^[74]

Tusk figurine of a man Late Naqada I to Early Naqada II, 3900-3500 BCE
Anthropomorphic tag. Matmar grave 2682. Naqada IC
Ivory human figures, Matmar grave 2682. Naqada IC.^[75]
Naqada, Tomb 1329, transitional Naqada I-II.^[76]
Death mask. Naqada IC–IIA (3750 BC).Hierakonpolis elite cemetery (HK6, Tomb 16).^[77]^[78]^[79]
Inventory ofBadari tomb 3165, dated SD 37-38 (Naqada IC-Naqada IIA)
Ivory tusk figurine ofBadari tomb 3165, dated SD 37-38 (Naqada IC-Naqada IIA)

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related toNaqada I.

Archaeological reports

Petrie, W. M. Flinders (William Matthew Flinders); Quibell, James Edward (1896).Naqada and Ballas. 1895. London, B. Quaritch.

External links

Predynastic Online Database

Sources

Patch, Diana Craig; Eaton-Krauss, Marianne (2011).Dawn of Egyptian art. New York : New Haven: Metropolitan Museum of Art ; Distributed by Yale University Press.ISBN 978-0300179521.

References

Footnotes

^Copper may have also been imported from theSinai Peninsula or perhapsNubia.

Citations

^"Figurine".Louvre Museum. 2025.
^^a ^bKemp, Barry John (2018).Ancient Egypt: anatomy of a civilization (3rd ed.). New-York (NY): Routledge. p. 42, Fig.2.6.ISBN 978-0415827263.
^Hendrickx, Stan.The relative chronology of the Naqada culture: Problems and possibilities [in:] Spencer, A.J. (ed.), Aspects of Early Egypt. London: British Museum Press, 1996: 36-69. p. 64.
^Kemp, Barry John (2018).Ancient Egypt: anatomy of a civilization (3rd ed.). New-York (NY): Routledge. p. 42.ISBN 978-0415827263.An older scheme ran from the Badarian, through the Amratian to the Gerzean and then, via a somewhat ambiguous transition, to the First Dynasty.Subsequently Amratian and Gerzean were generally replaced by the terms Nagada I and Nagada II, which still left the transitional period undefined. A redivision was proposed some years ago which recognizedthree Nagada phases: I, II and III (III overlapping with the First Dynasty), further subdivided by the use of capital letters (e.g. IIC), and this has become the standard terminology (with the retention of Badarian).
^Hendrickx, Stan (2006). "Predynastic—Early Dynastic Chronology".Ancient Egyptian Chronology(PDF). Brill. p. 92, Table II. 1.7. Absolute chronology.ISBN 978 90 04 11385 5.
^Hendrickx, Stan (1996), "The relative chronology of the Naqada culture: Problems and possibilities", in Spencer, Jeffrey (ed.),Aspects of Early Egypt, London: British Museum Press, p. 64
^Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000).The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481.ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
^"Naqada chronology".www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
^^a ^bShaw, Ian, ed. (2003).The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 44–45.ISBN 9780192804587.
^^a ^b ^cGrimal, Nicolas (1992).A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell. p. 28.ISBN 0-631-17472-9.
^Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006).Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. p. 71.ISBN 978-90-474-0400-2.
^Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000).The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 43-46.ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
^^a ^bTerres du Nil - L'Art des Potiers avant Pharaon(PDF). Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Musée d'Archéologie Nationale. 2024.
^"Naqada chronology".www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
^^a ^b ^cGardiner, Alan (1964).Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: University Press. p. 390.
^Newell, G.D. (2012).The relative chronology of PNC I. A new chronological synthesis for the Egyptian Predynastic. ex.cathedra Press.
^Hayes, William C. (1978).The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. 1, From the Earliest Times to the End of the Middle Kingdom. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 17.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^ePréhistoires de l’écriture. Presses universitaires de Provence. 24 March 2022. p. 48.ISBN 979-10-320-0369-5.
^Török, László (2009).Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt, 3700 BC-AD 500. BRILL. pp. 127–128.ISBN 978-90-04-17197-8.
^Patch & Eaton-Krauss 2011, pp. 48–49.
^"Beaker AN1895.482".www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
^^a ^b ^c"Vase". Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels.
^Campagno, Marcelo (2005)."On the Post-Firing Incised Potmarks with Human Figures from Naqada".Journal of Serbian Archaeology Society.21 (125–132): 127, fig.8.
^^a ^b ^cShaw, Ian, ed. (2003).The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 46.ISBN 9780192804587.
^^a ^bPatch & Eaton-Krauss 2011, p. 37.
^"A shallow white cross-lined ware bowl illustrating a man on a boat alongside a hippo and crocodile". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
^"Museum notice E3002".
^^a ^bScharff, Alexander (November 1928)."Some Prehistoric Vases in the British Museum and Remarks on Egyptian Prehistory".The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.14 (3/4): 268-269.doi:10.2307/3854302.
^^a ^bGayubas, Augusto (2021). "Warfare and Social Change in Non-state Societies of the Predynastic Nile Valley".Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science. Springer International Publishing. p. 47, note 16.These motifs bring to mind the Pharaonic scenes of the king smiting his enemies. According to Hendrickx, Huyge and Wendrich, arms raised "are to be considered a symbol of power, referencing bull horns
^Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2012)."Visual representation and state development in Egypt".Archéo-Nil. Revue de la société pour l'étude des cultures prépharaoniques de la vallée du Nil.22 (1): 26, Fig.1.b.doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1043.
^"Modern color photograph".www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
^^a ^bPatch & Eaton-Krauss 2011, p. 62, Similar jar from Brussels: E.3002.
^Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel; Meyer, Marleen De (2014). "On the origin of the royal false beard and its bovine symbolism".Aegyptus est imago caeli. Studies presented to Krzysztof M. Ciałowicz on his 60th birthday. Krakow: Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University in Kraków.ISBN 978-83-934218-8-6.
^Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2012)."Visual representation and state development in Egypt".Archéo-Nil.22 (1): 28, Fig. 2b.doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1043.
^Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2012)."Visual representation and state development in Egypt".Archéo-Nil.22 (1): 28, Fig. 2b.doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1043.
^Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2012)."Visual representation and state development in Egypt".Archéo-Nil. Revue de la société pour l'étude des cultures prépharaoniques de la vallée du Nil.22 (1): 26, Fig.1.b.doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1043.
^"Modern color photograph".www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
^"A shallow white cross-lined ware bowl illustrating a man on a boat alongside a hippo and crocodile". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
^Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2010). "Continuity and change in the visual representations of Predynastic Egypt".Recent discoveries and latest researches in Egyptology. Proceedings of the First Neapolitan Congress of Egyptology. Naples, June 18th-20th 2008. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 140, Fig.3.
^"Vase".Predynastic Online Database.
^"Ivory comb with human figure".www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
^Graff, Gwenola (24 March 2022). "The Iconography on Decorated Ware".Préhistoires de l’écriture. Presses universitaires de Provence. p. 48 ff.ISBN 979-10-320-0369-5.
^^a ^bHornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006).Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. p. 76.ISBN 978-90-474-0400-2.
^Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006).Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. pp. 76–77.ISBN 978-90-474-0400-2.
^Patch & Eaton-Krauss 2011, p. 115.
^^a ^b ^cSmith, Homer W. (2015) [1952].Man and His Gods.Lulu Press. pp. 16–17.ISBN 9781329584952.^{[permanent dead link]}
^Redford, Donald B. (1992).Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton: University Press. p. 7.ISBN 0-691-03606-3.
^Gardiner, Alan (1964).Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: University Press. p. 393.
^Isler, Martin (2001).Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Egyptian Pyramids. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 42.ISBN 978-0-8061-3342-3.
^^a ^b"Jarre". Louvre Museum. 2025.
^"Male Statuette" (in French). Brooklyn Museum.
^Ciałowicz, Krzysztof M. (2012)."Votive figurines from Tell el-Farkha and their counterparts".Archéo-Nil.22 (1):88–90.doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1044.
^Patch & Eaton-Krauss 2011, p. 137.
^"Seated man".www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
^^a ^b ^c ^dOrriols i Llonch, Marc (2020)."Predynastic tusks and penis sheaths: a new interpretation".Archéo-Nil:149–167.
^Hendrickx, S.; Eyckerman, M. (2008). "Tusks and tags. Between the hippopotamus and the Naqada plant".Egypt at its Origins 3. Proceedings of the International Conference “Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”. Leuven. pp. 497–570.ISBN 9789042924901.
^Nunn, John F. (2002).Ancient Egyptian Medicine. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 69.ISBN 9780806135045.
^Rosenberg, Danny; Chasan, Rivka (December 2024)."Ivories in the Late Chalcolithic Period and Their Significance for Understanding Contacts Between Egypt and the Southern Levant".Journal of World Prehistory.37 (4): 248-256.doi:10.1007/s10963-024-09187-9.
^"Naqada I figure".The British Museum. British Museum.
^Insoll, Timothy (2017).The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Figurines. Oxford University Press. p. 66.ISBN 978-0-19-967561-6.
^"Naqadan Art, male figures (modern color photographs)".www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
^"Naqadan Art, female figures (modern color photographs)".www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
^Petrie, William Matthew Flinders (1853-1942) (1939).The making of Egypt. p. Plate XI.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^"Naqada I figure".The British Museum. British Museum.
^"Female statuette". British Museum.
^Dawn of Egyptian Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 124–125, cat.103.
^Hendrickx, Stan (2004).Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt," Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Peeters Publishers. p. 892.ISBN 978-90-429-1469-8.
^^a ^bHendrickx, Stan; Adams, Barbara; Friedman, R. F. (2004).Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams: Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt", Krakow, 28 August – 1 September 2002. Peeters Publishers. p. 892.ISBN 978-90-429-1469-8.
^^a ^bHendrickx, Stan; Adams, Barbara; Friedman, R. F. (2004).Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt", Krakow, 28 August – 1st September 2002. Peeters Publishers. pp. 893–894.ISBN 978-90-429-1469-8.
^Polz, Daniel; Seidlmayer, Stephan Johannes; Hendrickx, Stan (2016). "The origin and early significance of the White Crown".Gedenkschrift für Werner Kaiser. Mainz: Zabern. pp. 229–231.ISBN 978-3-11-041802-6.
^Nowak, Edyta Maria (2004). "Egyptian Predynastic Ivories Decorated With Anthropomorphic Motifs".Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt," Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Peeters Publishers. p. 898.ISBN 978-90-429-1469-8.
^Hendrickx, Stan (2004).Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt," Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Peeters Publishers. pp. 892–893, figure 1-1.ISBN 978-90-429-1469-8.
^Brunton, Guy (1928).The Badarian Civilization(PDF). London: University College. p. 45-46 (tomb description), Plate XLVII fig.6 (photography).
^Sharp, Iryna (22 February 2018).Egyptian Predynastic Anthropomorphic Objects: A Study of Their Function and Significance in Predynastic Burial Customs. Archaeopress Publishing. pp. Grave 3165 p.92 Fig.2, Grave 3828 p.77.ISBN 978178491778 4.
^"Similar statuette". British Museum.
^Hendrickx, Stan (2004).Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams : Proceedings of the International Conference "Origin of the State, Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt," Krakow, 28 August - 1st September 2002. Peeters Publishers. p. 892.ISBN 978-90-429-1469-8.
^Tamás, Bács (2017).Bevezetés az ókori Egyiptom művészetébe(PDF). Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó. p. 13, Fig.2.ISBN 978 963 693 791 1.
^Friedman, Renee (1 January 2011).The elite Predynastic cemetery at Hierakonpolis: 2009–2010 update. Orientala Lovaniensia Analecta. pp. 157–192.
^Teeter, Emily (2011).Before the pyramids: the origins of Egyptian civilization. Chicago, Ill: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 38.ISBN 978-1-885923-82-0.

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Chronology of the Neolithic period

Pre-Pottery Neolithic Pottery Neolithic

BC	Europe	Egypt	Syria Levant	Anatolia	Khabur	Sinjar Mountains Assyria	MiddleTigris	Low Mesopotamia	Iran (Khuzistan)	Iran	Indus/ India	China
11000												Early Pottery (18,000 BC)
10000			Pre-Pottery Neolithic A Gesher Mureybet (10,500 BC)
9000			Jericho Tell Abu Hureyra
8000			Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Jericho Tell Aswad	Göbekli Tepe Çayönü Aşıklı Höyük								Initial Neolithic (Pottery) Nanzhuangtou (8500–8000 BC)
7000		Egyptian Neolithic Nabta Playa (7500 BC)	Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Jericho Tell Aswad	Çatalhöyük (7500–5500) Hacilar (7000 BC)	Tell Sabi Abyad Bouqras	Jarmo				Ganj Dareh Chia Jani Ali Kosh	Mehrgarh I
6500	Neolithic Europe Franchthi Sesklo		Pre-Pottery Neolithic C (Ain Ghazal)		Pottery Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad Bouqras	Pottery Neolithic Jarmo			Chogha Bonut	Teppe Zagheh	Mehrgarh I	Pottery Neolithic Peiligang (7000–5000 BC)
6000	Pottery Neolithic Sesklo Dimini		Pottery Neolithic Yarmukian (Sha'ar HaGolan)		Pottery Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad Bouqras	Pottery Neolithic Jarmo		Pottery Neolithic Ubaid 0 (Tell el-'Oueili)	Pottery Neolithic Chogha Mish	Pottery Neolithic Sang-i Chakmak	Pottery Neolithic Lahuradewa Mehrgarh II Mehrgarh III
5600	Pottery Neolithic Sesklo Dimini	Faiyum A	Amuq A		Halaf Halaf-Ubaid	Umm Dabaghiya	Samarra (6000–4800 BC)	Pottery Neolithic Ubaid 0 (Tell el-'Oueili)	Tepe Muhammad Djafar	Tepe Sialk
5200	Linear Pottery culture (5500–4500 BC)	Faiyum A	Amuq B	Hacilar Mersin 24–22		Hassuna		Ubaid 1 (Eridu 19–15) Ubaid 2 (Hadji Muhammed) (Eridu 14–12)	Susiana A	Yarim Tepe Hajji Firuz Tepe
4800		Pottery Neolithic Merimde	Amuq C	Hacilar Mersin 22–20		Hassuna Late Gawra 20			Tepe Sabz	Kul Tepe Jolfa
4500		Pottery Neolithic Merimde	Amuq D Levant Chalcolithic	Gian Hasan Mersin 19–17	Ubaid 3	Ubaid 3 (Gawra) 19–18	Ubaid 3		Khazineh Susiana B
3800		Badarian Naqada I	Amuq D Levant Chalcolithic	Gian Hasan Mersin 19–17	Ubaid 4
		Succeeded by:Historical Ancient Near East

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Rulers of theancient Near East

Territories/ dates ^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]	Egypt		Canaan	Ebla	Mari	Kish/ Assur	Akshak/ Akkad	Uruk	Adab	Umma	Lagash	Ur	Elam
4000–3200 BCE	Naqada I Naqada II		Levant Chalcolithic	Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)									Susa I
4000–3200 BCE	Naqada I Naqada II			Uruk period (4000–3100 BCE) (Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests")									Susa II (Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE	Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Dynasty 0
3200–3100 BCE	Upper Egypt Finger SnailFishPen-AbuAnimalStorkCanideBullScorpion IShendjwIry-Hor KaScorpion IINarmer /Menes	Lower Egypt Hedju HorNy-HorHsekiuKhayuTiuTheshNehebWaznerNat-HorMekhDouble FalconWash
3100–2900 BCE	Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Palette Narmer Menes Neithhotep^♀ (regent)Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith^♀ (regent)Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'aSneferkaHorus Bird		Canaanites	Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BCE)									Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE	Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb NynetjerBaNubneferHorus SaWeneg-NebtyWadjenesSenedjSeth-Peribsen Sekhemib-PerenmaatNeferkara INeferkasokarHudjefa IKhasekhemwy			Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE				First Eblaite Kingdom	First kingdom of Mari	Kish I dynasty Jushur,Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum,Puannum,Kalibum
2800 BCE						Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna		Uruk I dynasty Meshkiangasher
2800 BCE								Enmerkar ("conqueror ofAratta")
2700 BCE				Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
						Zamug,Tizqar,Ilku Iltasadum		Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman
						Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")^[6]
						Aga of Kish		Gilgamesh					Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indo-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE	Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser (FirstEgyptian pyramids) Sekhemkhet SanakhtNebkaKhabaQahedjetHuni			Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
				Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu		Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim		Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum			Lagash En-hegal Lugal- shaengur	Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (QueenPuabi) Akalamdug
						Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim		Enun-dara-anna Mesh-he Melem-ana Lugal-kitun	Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu		Lagash En-hegal Lugal- shaengur	Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (QueenPuabi) Akalamdug
2575 BCE	Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre KhafreBikherisMenkaure ShepseskafThamphthis				Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE			Phoenicia (2500–539 BCE)		Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Enna-Dagan	Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba^♀	Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu	Uruk II dynasty Ensha- kushanna	Mug-si	Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku	Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal	A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu	Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
2450 BCE	Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas			Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik						Ush Enakalle		A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu	Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
2450 BCE				Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik						Ush Enakalle		Elamite invasions (3 kings)^[6]	Shushun-Tarana Napi-Ilhush
2425 BCE				Kun-Damu		Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE				Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu		Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa	Urur	Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi	E-iginimpa'e Meskigal	Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (QueenBara-irnun)	Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi	Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II	Kikku-Siwe-Temti
2380 BCE	Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah			Adab dynasty Lugal-Anne-Mundu "King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE				Isar-Damu	Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari	Invasion byMari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter^[6]				Ukush	Lugalanda Urukagina		Luh-ishan
2350 BCE				Isar-Damu	Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari		Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin	Uruk III dynasty Lugal-zage-si (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)					Luh-ishan
2340 BCE					Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
2340 BCE				Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu									Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE				Naram-Sin							Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE	First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare			SecondEblaite Kingdom	Third kingdom of Mari (Shakkanakku dynasty) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (vassals of the Akkadians)	Shar-Kali-Sharri					Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE						Igigi,Imi,Nanum,Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul		Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir			Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku		Hishep-ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE	Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut				Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
					Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin	Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um		Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu		Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians)	Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
						Tirigan					Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
2125 BCE	Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merikare					Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal
2100 BCE				(Vassals of UR III)	Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar (vassals of Ur III)^[7]	Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025–1763 BCE				Amorite invasions							Ibbi-Sin	Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
	Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
				Third Eblaite Kingdom (Amorites) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma	(Amorite Shakkanakkus) Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (...) Lim Dynasty ofMari (Amorites) Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (QueenShibtu)	Old Assyria Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II	Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin:Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Ishtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa:Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...)Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of UrukSîn-kāšid Sîn-iribamSîn-gāmil Ilum-gamilAn-am Irdanene Rîm-Anum Nabi-ilišu						Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
	Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu^♀
1800–1595 BCE	Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt		Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon	Yamhad (Yamhad dynasty) (Amorites)	Old Assyria (Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II		First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-Muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-Eshuh Ammi-Ditana Ammi-Saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers				Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar ^mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil
1800–1595 BCE	Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt	Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos Semqen'Aper-'AnatiSakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi		Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Baratarna
1531–1155 BCE	Tutankhamun New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I			Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Baratarna			Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-Harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burna-Buriash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliash IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi						Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha
	Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut^♀Thutmose III
	Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III AkhenatenSmenkhkareNeferneferuaten^♀Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb			Hittite Empire (1450–1180 BCE) Suppiluliuma I Mursili II Muwatalli II Mursili III Hattusili III Tudhaliya IV Suppiluliuma II Ugarit (vassal of Hittites)
	Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Tausret^♀						Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE	Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II		Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon	Syro-Hittite states Carchemish Tabal	Middle Assyria Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II		Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur						Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE							Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli						Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
911–745 BCE	Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq VPedubast IIOsorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef		Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah		Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat^♀ (regent)Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V		Eight Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings)Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri						Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE	Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Taharqa ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun		Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser^†Shalmaneser^†Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon^†Sennacherib^†Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi^†Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon^†Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II
745–609 BCE	Assyrian conquest of Egypt												Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE	Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III		Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus										Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE	Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)		Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon	Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
	Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
	Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE	Argead dynasty andPtolemaic Egypt Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Ceraunus Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II^♀Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis^♀Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator^♀Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra^♀Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira^♀Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III^♀Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV^♀Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III^♀Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V^♀Cleopatra VI Tryphaena^♀Berenice IV Epiphanea^♀Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator^♀Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV^♀		Hellenistic Period Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon Argead dynasty:Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV Antigonid dynasty:Antigonus I Seleucid Empire:Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE			Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra^♀Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias	Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus	Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE	Roman Empire
30 BCE–116 CE	(Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt		Judaea	Syria
116–117 CE			Judaea		Province of Mesopotamia underTrajan			Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE			Syria Palaestina		Province of Mesopotamia	Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE			Syria Palaestina		Province of Mesopotamia	Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint. Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE	Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia^♀Antiochus
273–395 CE	Roman Empire
273–395 CE	Province of Egypt		Syria Palaestina	Syria	Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE	Byzantine Empire
395–618 CE	Byzantine Egypt		Palaestina Prima,Palaestina Secunda	Byzantine Syria	Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE	(Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Shahralanyozan Shahrbaraz		Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE	Byzantine Empire					Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran^♀Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht^♀Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
628–641 CE	Byzantine Egypt		Palaestina Prima,Palaestina Secunda	Byzantine Syria	Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE	Muslim conquest of Egypt		Muslim conquest of the Levant		Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period							Rulers of ancient Central Asia
^Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. ^Hallo, William W.;Simpson, William Kelly (1971).The Ancient Near East: A History. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.ISBN 978-0-15-502755-8. ^"Rulers of Mesopotamia".CDLI:wiki. Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative. ^Thomas, Ariane;Potts, Timothy, eds. (2020).Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p. 14.ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^Roux, Georges (1992).Ancient Iraq. London: Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables).ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^^a ^b ^cPer theSumerian King List. ^Unger, Merrill F. (2014).Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock. p. 5.ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

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