Amman is one of theoldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.[9][10] The earliest evidence of settlement in Amman dates to the 8th millennium BC in'Ain Ghazal, home to the world'soldest statues of the human form. During theIron Age, the city was known asRabat Aman, the capital of theAmmonite Kingdom. In the 3rd century BC, the city was renamedPhiladelphia and became one of the ten Greco-Roman cities of theDecapolis. Later, in the 7th century AD, theRashidun Caliphate renamed the city Amman. Throughout most of the Islamic era, the city alternated between periods of devastation and periods of relative prosperity. Amman was largely abandoned during theOttoman period from the 15th century until 1878, when it was resettled by Circassians.[11] The city grew after it wasconnected to theHejaz Railway in 1904, leading to the formation of its first municipal council in 1909.[12]
Amman witnessed rapid growth after its designation asTransjordan's capital in 1921, receiving migrations from different Jordanian and Levantine cities, and later several successive waves of refugees:Palestinians in 1948 and 1967; Iraqis in 1990 and 2003; and Syrians since 2011. It was initially built onseven hills, but now spans over 19 hills combining 22 areas,[12] which are administered by theGreater Amman Municipality.[13] Areas of Amman have gained their names from either the hills (jabal) or the valleys (wadi) they occupy, such asJabal al-Luweibdeh and Wadi Abdoun.[12] East Amman is predominantly filled with historic sites that frequently host cultural activities, while West Amman is more modern and serves as the economic center of the city.[14]
Amman derives its name from the ancient people of theAmmonites, whose capital the city had been since the 13th century BC. The Ammonites named itRabat ʿAmmān (𐤓𐤁𐤕 𐤏𐤌𐤍),[5] with the termRabat meaning the "Capital" or the "King's Quarters". In theHebrew Bible, the town is referred to asRabbaṯ Bənē ʿAmmōn (רַבַּת בְּנֵי עַמּוֹן) or simplyRabbā (רַבָּה),[19] and it appears in English translations as "Rabbah of the Ammonites," "Rabbah of the sons of Ammon, or "Rabbath Ammon."Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Macedonian ruler of thePtolemaic Kingdom who reigned from 283 to 246 BC, renamed the cityPhiladelphia (Ancient Greek:Φιλαδέλφεια; literally: "brotherly love"), after himself, after occupying it.[20] By the Islamic era, theRashidun Caliphate restored its ancient Semitic name and called it Amman in the 7th century AD.[21]
TheNeolithic site ofʿAin Ghazal today lies in the outskirts of Amman. At its height, around 7000 BC (9000 years ago), it had an area of 15 hectares (37 acres) and was inhabited by ca. 3000 people (four to five times the population of contemporaryJericho). At that time, the site was a typicalaceramicNeolithic village. Its houses were rectangular mud-bricked buildings that included a main square living room, whose walls were made up of lime plaster.[23] The site was discovered in 1974 as construction workers were working on a road crossing the area. By 1982, when the excavations started, around 600 meters (2,000 feet) of road ran through the site. Despite the damage brought by urban expansion, the remains of ʿAin Ghazal provided a wealth of information.[24]
ʿAin Ghazal is well known for a set of small human statues found in 1983, when local archeologists stumbled upon the edge of a large pit containing them.[25] These statues are human figures made with white plaster, with painted eyes. Thirty-two figures were found in two caches, fifteen of them full figures, fifteen busts, and two fragmentary heads. Three of the busts depicted two-headed characters, the significance of which is not clear.[24]
In the 13th century BC, Amman was the capital of theAmmonite Kingdom, and became known as "Rabat Amman". Rabat Amman provided several natural resources to the region, including sandstone and limestone, along with a productive agricultural sector that made it a vital location along theKing's Highway, the ancient trade route connectingEgypt withMesopotamia,Syria andAnatolia. As with theEdomites andMoabites, trade along this route gave the Ammonites considerable revenue.[26]Milcom is named in theHebrew Bible as thenational god of Rabat Amman. Another ancientdeity,Moloch, usually associated with the use of children as offerings, is also mentioned in the Bible as a god of the Ammonites, but this is probably a mistake for Milcom. However, excavations by archeologists nearAmman Civil Airport uncovered a temple, which included an altar containing many human bone fragments. The bones showed evidence of burning, which led to the assumption that the altar functioned as apyre and used forhuman sacrifice.[27][28]
Amman is mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible. According to the biblical narrative, the Ammonite kingHanun allied withHadadezer, king ofAram-Zobah, against theUnited Kingdom of Israel. During the war,Joab, the captain of KingDavid's army, laid siege to Rabbah, Hanun's royal capital, and destroyed it (2 Samuel 12:26–28,1 Chronicles 20:1–2). David took a great quantity of plunder from the city, including the king's crown, and brought it to his capital,Jerusalem (2 Samuel 12:29–31). Hanun's brother,Shobi, was made king in his place, and became a loyal vassal of David (2 Samuel 17:27). Hundreds of years later, the prophetJeremiah foresaw the coming destruction and final desolation of the city (Jeremiah 49:2).[29][30]
Several Ammonite ruins across Amman exist, such asRujm Al-Malfouf and some parts of theAmman Citadel. The ruins of Rujm Al-Malfouf consist of a stone watchtower used to ensure the protection of their capital and several store rooms to the east.[31][32] The city was later conquered by theAssyrians, followed by theBabylonians and theAchaemenid Persians.[33]
Conquest of theNear East byAlexander the Great firmly consolidated the influence ofHellenistic culture,[33] marking the start of theHellenistic period. Little is known about Greek/Macedonian control over the Levantine coast and Transjordan until 301 BCE, 22 years after Alexander's death, when the Ptolemies took control over this area.[34] The Greeks founded new cities in the area of modern-day Jordan, including Gadara (Umm Qays), Gerasa (Jerash),Pella (Tabaqat Fahl) and Philadelphia (Amman).[34]Ptolemy II nicknamed Philadelphus, the Macedonian ruler of Egypt, established in or before 259/58 BCE[35] at the site of Amman what was initially probably amilitary colony, which then developed into a full-blown Greek-typepolis,[36] possibly by settling there HellenisedTyrean colonists.[35] Ptolemy II named itPhiladelphia (Ancient Greek:Φιλαδέλφεια,romanized: Philadelpheia), evoking "brotherly love" inGreek, in adulation to his own nickname.[35]
Written sources speak of members of theJewishTobiad family based inJerusalem, who worked for the Ptolemies as tax collectors in charge of the entire region. The last known Tobiad, Hyrcanus, built the unique Hellenistic palace of Tyros (today'sQasr al-Abd, 'Castle of the Slave') southwest of Philadelpheia, before killing himself inc. 170-168 BC as the Seleucid kingAntiochus IV seemed poised to attack him.[34] This was one of several episodes in theSyrian Wars between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies, ending with the 200 BCE victory of the Seleucids at theBattle of Panium.[34] In218/17 BCE for instance, Seleucid kingAntiochus III destroyed the Ptolemaic garrisons in the centre of Transjordan, capturing Philadelpheia in the process.[34] Even after 200 BCE, Philadelpheia seems to have broken free at times from Seleucid rule and probably also escaped capture by Hasmonean kingAlexander Jannaios (r. c. 103 – c. 76 BCE),[35] who was more successful elsewhere in the region. OtherHasmonean andNabataean rulers acted as regional power brokers, contributing to the instability of the political situation during the 2nd century BCE and until the advent of the Roman period in the following century, which led to the Hellenisation of the region only truly setting in under the Romans.[34]
There are traces of Roman construction all across Jordan. In Amman the most conspicuous structures include the Great Temple (inaccurately known as the "Temple of Hercules") at theAmman Citadel, theRoman Theatre, theOdeon, and theNymphaeum. The two theaters and thenymphaeum fountain were built during the reign of EmperorAntoninus Pius around AD 161. The theatre was the larger venue of the two and had a capacity for 6,000 attendees. It was oriented north and built into the hillside, to protect the audience from the sun. To the northeast of the theatre was a smallodeon. Built at roughly the same time as the theatre, the Odeon had 500 seats and is still in use today for music concerts. Archaeologists speculate that the structure was originally covered with a wooden roof to shield the audience from the weather. The Nymphaeum is situated southwest of the Odeon and served as Philadelphia's chief fountain. The Nymphaeum is believed to have contained a 600 square meters (6,500 sq ft) pool which was 3 meters (9.8 ft) deep and was continuously refilled with water.[38]
In the 630s, theRashidun Caliphate conquered the region from theByzantines, beginning the Islamic era in the Levant. Philadelphia was renamed "Amman" by the Muslims and became part of the district ofJund Dimashq. A large part of the population already spokeArabic, which facilitated integration into thecaliphate, as well as several conversions toIslam. Under theUmayyad caliphs who began their rule in 661 AD, numerousdesert castles were established as a means to govern the desert area of modern-day Jordan, several of which are still well-preserved. Amman had already been functioning as an administrative centre. The Umayyads built a large palace on theAmman Citadel hill, known today as theUmayyad Palace. Amman was later destroyed by several earthquakes and natural disasters, including a particularly severe earthquake in749. The Umayyads wereoverthrown by theAbbasids three years later.[37]
Amman's importance declined by the mid-8th century after damage caused by several earthquakes rendered it uninhabitable.[39] Excavations among the collapsed layer of the Umayyad Palace have revealed remains ofkilns from the time of theAbbasids (750–969) and theFatimids (969–1099).[40] In the late 9th century, Amman was noted as the "capital" of theBalqa by geographeral-Yaqubi.[41] Likewise, in 985, theJerusalemite historianal-Muqaddasi described Amman as the capital of Balqa,[41] that it was a town in the desert fringe of Syria surrounded by villages and cornfields and a regional source of lambs, grain and honey.[42] Its inhabitants he reports, at the time, wereShia Muslims.[42] Furthermore, al-Muqaddasi describes Amman as a "harbor of the desert" where Arab Bedouin would take refuge, and that its citadel, which overlooked the town, contained a small mosque.[43]
The occupation of the Citadel Hill by theCrusaderKingdom of Jerusalem is so far based only on interpretations of Crusader sources.William of Tyre writes in hisHistoria that in 1161Philip of Milly received the castle of Ahamant, which is seen to refer to Amman, as part of the lordship ofOultrejordain.[44] In 1166 Philip joined themilitary order of theKnights Templar, passing on to them a significant part of hisfief including the castle of Ahamant[45] or "Haman", as it is named in the deed of confirmation issued by KingAmalric.[46] By 1170, Amman was inAyyubid hands.[47] Theremains of a watch tower on Citadel Hill, first attributed to the Crusaders, now are preferentially dated to theAyyubid period, leaving it to further research to find the location of the Crusader castle.[46] During the Ayyubid period, the Damascene geographeral-Dimashqi wrote that Amman was part of the province ofal-Karak, although "only ruins" remained of the town.[48]
During theMamluk era (late 13th–early 16th century), the region of Amman was a part of Wilayat Balqa, the southernmost district of Mamlakat Dimashq (Damascus Province).[49] The capital of the district in the first half of the 14th century was the minor administrative post ofHisban, which had a considerably smaller garrison than the other administrative centers in Transjordan, namelyAjlun and al-Karak.[50] In 1321, the geographerAbu'l Fida, recorded that Amman was "a very ancient town" with fertile soil and surrounded by agricultural fields.[43] For unclear, though likely financial reasons, in 1356, the capital of Balqa was transferred from Hisban to Amman, which was considered amadina (city).[51] In 1357, EmirSirghitmish bought Amman in its entirety, most likely to use revenues from the city to help fund theMadrasa of Sirghitmish, which he built inCairo that same year.[51] After his purchase of the city, Sirghitmish transferred the courts, administrative bureaucracy, markets and most of the inhabitants of Hisban to Amman.[51] Moreover, he financed new building works in the city.[51]
Ownership of Amman following Sirghitmish's death in 1358 passed to successive generations of his descendants until 1395, when his descendants sold it to Emir Baydamur al-Khwarazmi, thena'ib as-saltana (viceroy) of Damascus.[51] Afterward, part of Amman's cultivable lands were sold to Emir Sudun al-Shaykhuni (died 1396), thena'ib as-saltana of Egypt.[52] The increasingly frequent division and sale of the city and lands of Amman to different owners signalled declining revenues coming from Amman, while at the same time, Hisban was restored as the major city of the Balqa in the 15th century.[53] From then until 1878, Amman was an abandoned site periodically used to shelter seasonal farmers who cultivated arable lands in its vicinity and by Bedouin tribes who used its pastures and water.[54][55] TheOttoman Empire annexed the region of Amman in 1516, but for much of the Ottoman period,al-Salt functioned as the virtual political center of Transjordan.[11]
Amman began to be resettled in 1878, when several hundred MuslimCircassians arrived following their expulsion from theNorth Caucasus by theRussian Empire during the events of theRusso-Circassian War.[11] Between 1878 and 1910, tens of thousands of Circassians became refugees in the Ottoman Empire, which had moved large numbers of them into its province ofSyria.[56] The Ottoman authorities directed theCircassians, who were mainly of peasant stock, to settle in Amman, and distributed arable land among them. Their settlement was a partial manifestation of the Ottoman statesmanKamil Pasha's project, which did not materialize, to establish the Amman Province (vilayet) which, along with other sites in its vicinity, would become Circassian-populated townships guaranteeing the security of the Damascus–Medina highway.[57] The first Circassian settlers, who belonged to theShapsug tribe,[58] lived near Amman's Roman theater and incorporated its stones into the houses they built.[11] The English travellerLaurence Oliphant noted in his 1879 visit that most of the original Circassian settlers had left Amman by then, with about 150 remaining.[58] They were joined by Circassians from theKabardian andAbzakh tribes in 1880–1892.[58]
The first scientific map of Amman, 1881. The British surveyors noted that: "The Circassian colony established by the Sultan at Amman about 1879 [is] neither prosperous nor likely to become so".[59]
Until 1900 settlement was concentrated in the valley and slopes of the Amman stream and settlers built mud-brick houses with wooden roofs.[58] The French Dominican priestMarie-Joseph Lagrange commented in 1890 about Amman: "A mosque, the ancient bridges, all that jumbled with the houses of the Circassians gives Amman a remarkable physiognomy".[58] The new village became anahiye (subdistrict) center of thekaza of al-Salt in theKarak Sanjak established in 1894.[58] By 1908 Amman contained 800 houses divided between three main quarters, Shapsug, Kabartai and Abzakh, each called after the Circassian groupings which respectively settled there, a number of mosques, open-air markets, shops, bakeries, mills, a textile factory, a post and telegraph office and a government compound (saraya).[58]Kurdish settlers formed their own quarter called "al-Akrad" after them, while a number of townspeople from nearby al-Salt andal-Fuheis, seeking to avoid high taxes and conscription or attracted by financial incentives, and traders fromNajd andMorocco, had also moved to the town.[60]
The city's demographics changed dramatically after the Ottoman government's decision to construct theHejaz Railway, which linked Damascus and Medina, and facilitated the annualHajj pilgrimage and trade. Operational in central Transjordan since 1903, theHejaz Railway helped to transform Amman from a small village into a major commercial hub in the region. Circassian entrepreneurship, facilitated by the railway, helped to attract investment from merchants from Damascus, Nablus, and Jerusalem, many of whom moved to Amman in the 1900s and 1910s. Some of the Arab families who arrived from surrounding regions during this period include Hudhud, Malas, Idlibi, Bdeir, Haddad, and Kawar. Although they settled after the local Circassian population and Bedouins of Jordan, they earned the nickname 'Founding Families of Amman' for establishing key institutions such as pharmacies and construction firms, and for bringing goods and expertise from their more developed cities of origion.[11] Amman's first municipal council was established in 1909, and CircassianIsmael Babouk was elected as its mayor.[61]
In 1921, the Hashemite emir and later kingAbdullah I designated Amman instead of al-Salt to be the capital of the newly created state, theEmirate of Transjordan, which became theHashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1950. Its function as the capital of the country attracted immigrants from different Levantine areas, particularly from al-Salt, a nearby city that had been the largest urban settlement east of theJordan River at the time. The early settlers who came fromPalestine were overwhelmingly fromNablus, from which many of al-Salt's inhabitants had originated. They were joined by other immigrants from Damascus. Amman later attracted people from the southern part of the country, particularly al-Karak andMadaba. The city's population was around 10,000 in the 1930s.[63]
The British report from 1933 shows around 1,700 Circassians living in Amman.[64] Yet the community was far from insulated. Local urban and nomadic communities formed alliances with the Circassians, some of which are still present today. This cemented the status of Circassians in the re-established city.[11]
Jordan gained its independence in 1946 and Amman was designated the country's capital. Amman received many refugees during wartime events in nearby countries, beginning with the1948 Arab–Israeli War. A second wave arrived after theSix-Day War in 1967. In 1970, Amman was abattlefield during the conflict between thePalestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and theJordanian Army known asBlack September. The Jordanian Army defeated the PLO in 1971, and the latter were expelled toLebanon.[65] The first wave of Iraqi refugees settled in the city after the 1991Gulf War, with a second wave occurring in the aftermath of the2003 invasion of Iraq.
On 9 November 2005,Al-Qaeda underAbu Musab al-Zarqawi's leadership launchedcoordinated explosions in three hotel lobbies in Amman, resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured. The bombings, which targeted civilians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians.[66] Jordan's security as a whole was dramatically improved after the attack, and no major terrorist attacks have been reported since then.[67][68] Most recently a wave ofSyrian refugees have arrived in the city during the ongoingSyrian Civil War which began in 2011. Amman was a principal destination for refugees for the security and prosperity it offered.[69]
During the 2010s, the city has experienced an economic, cultural and urban boom. The large growth in population has significantly increased the need for new accommodation, and new districts of the city were established at a quick pace. This strained Jordan's scarce water supply and exposed Amman to the dangers of quick expansion without careful municipal planning.[70]
Amman is situated on theEast Bank Plateau, an upland characterized by three majorwadis which run through it.[71] Originally, the city had beenbuilt on seven hills.[72] Amman's terrain is typified by itsmountains.[73] The most important areas in the city are named after the hills or mountains they lie on.[74] The area's elevation ranges from 700 to 1,100 m (2,300 to 3,600 ft).[75]Al-Salt andal-Zarqa are located to the northwest and northeast, respectively,Madaba is located to the west, andal-Karak andMa'an are to Amman's southwest and southeast, respectively. One of the only remaining springs in Amman now supplies theZarqa River with water.[76] Trees found in Amman includeAleppo pine,Mediterranean cypress andPhoenician juniper.[77]
Thesummer season in Amman is moderately long, characterized by mild heat and refreshing breezes. However, occasional heatwaves may occur during this period.Spring is brief yet warm, with temperatures reaching highs of 28 °C (82 °F). This season typically commences between April and May, lasting for about a month.Winter usually sets in around the end of November, extending through early to mid-March. During winter, temperatures typically hover around or below 17 °C (63 °F), with sporadicsnowfall occurring once or twice a year.
The average annual rainfall in Amman is around 385 mm (15 in), with great variations between different parts of the city. The western areas receive more than 500 mm (20 in) of rainfall, whereas the eastern areas receive less than 250 mm (10 in). Rainfall primarily occurs between November and April, and periodic droughts are not uncommon.
Amman experiences heavyfog on about 120 days each year. The city's diverse weather conditions are heavily influenced by differences inelevation. While snow might accumulate in the higher-altitude western and northern regions of Amman (with an average altitude of 1,000 m or 3,300 ft above sea level), the city center (at an elevation of 700 m or 2,300 ft) might experience rainfall simultaneously. This variation in elevation leads to extrememicroclimates within Amman, with each district having its own distinct weather patterns.
Climate data for East Amman, Amman Civil Airport, elevation: 779 m or 2555 ft 1989-2018
Amman is governed by a 41-member city council elected directly for terms of four years. All Jordanian citizens above 18 years old are eligible to vote in the municipal elections. However, the mayor is appointed by the king and not through elections.[21] In 1909 a city council was established in Amman by CircassianIsmael Babouk who became the first-ever mayor of the capital, and in 1914 Amman's first city district center was founded.[83]
The Greater Amman Municipality (GAM) has been investing in making the city a better place, through a number of initiatives. Green Amman 2020 was initiated in 2014, aiming to turn the city to agreen metropolis by 2020. According to official statistics, only 2.5% of Amman isgreen space.[84] In 2015 GAM and Zain Jordan started operating free-of-charge Wi-Fi services at 15 locations, includingWakalat Street,Rainbow Street,The Hashemite Plaza,Ashrafieh Cultural Complex, Zaha Cultural Center, Al Hussein Cultural Center,Al Hussein Public Parks and others.[85]
Jordan is divided into twelve administrative divisions, each called a governorate.Amman Governorate divides into ninedistricts, five of which are divided into sub-districts. The Greater Amman Municipality has 22 areas which are further divided into neighborhoods.[86]
The city is administered as the Greater Amman Municipality and covers 22 areas which include:[87][88]
Thebanking sector is one of the principal foundations of Jordan's economy. Despite the unrest and economic difficulties in the Arab world resulting from theArab Spring uprisings, Jordan's banking sector maintained its growth in 2014. The sector consists of 25 banks, 15 of which are listed on theAmman Stock Exchange. Amman is the base city for the internationalArab Bank, one of the largest financial institutions in the Middle East, serving clients in more than 600 branches in 30 countries on five continents. Arab Bank represents 28% of the Amman Stock Exchange and is the highest-ranked institution bymarket capitalization on the exchange.[89]
Amman is the fourth most-visited Arab city and the ninth highest recipient of international visitor spending. Roughly 1.8 million tourists visited Amman in 2011 and spent over $1.3 billion in the city.[90] The expansion ofQueen Alia International Airport is an example of the Greater Amman Municipality's heavy investment in the city's infrastructure. The recent construction of a public transportation system and a national railway, and the expansion of roads, are intended to ease the traffic generated by the millions of annual visitors to the city.[91]
Amman, and Jordan in general, is the Middle East's hub formedical tourism. Jordan receives the most medical tourists in the region and the fifth highest in the world. Amman receives 250,000 foreign patients a year and over $1 billion annually.[92]
Amman is introducing itself as a business hub. The city's skyline is being continuously transformed through the emergence of new projects. A significant portion of business flowed into Amman following the 2003Iraq War. Jordan's main airport,Queen Alia International Airport, is located south of Amman and is the hub for the country's national carrierRoyal Jordanian, a major airline in the region.[93] The airline is headquartered inZahran district.Rubicon Group Holding andMaktoob, two major regional information technology companies, are based in Amman, along with major international corporations such asHikma Pharmaceuticals, one of the Middle East's largest pharmaceutical companies, andAramex, the Middle East's largest logistics and transportation company.[94][95]
In a report by Dunia Frontier Consultants, Amman, along withDoha,Qatar andDubai,United Arab Emirates, are the favored hubs for multinational corporations operating in the Middle East and North Africa region.[18] InFDI magazine, Amman was chosen as the Middle Eastern city with the most potential to be a leader in foreign direct investment in the region.[94] Furthermore, several of the world's largest investment banks have offices in Amman includingStandard Chartered,Société Générale, andCitibank.[96]
The population of Amman reached 4,007,526 in 2015; the city contains about 42% of Jordan's entire population.[8] It has a land area of 1,680 km2 (648.7 sq mi) which yields a population density of about 2,380 inhabitants per square kilometer (6,200/sq mi).[100] The population of Amman has risen exponentially with the successive waves of immigrants and refugees arriving throughout the 20th century. From a population of roughly 1,000 in 1890, Amman grew to around 1,000,000 inhabitants in 1990, primarily as a result of immigration, but also due to the high birthrate in the city.[101] Amman had been abandoned for centuries until hundreds ofCircassians settled it in the 19th century. Today, about 40,000 Circassians live in Amman and its vicinity.[102] After Amman became a major hub along theHejaz Railway in 1914, many Muslim and Christian merchant families from al-Salt immigrated to the city.[103] A large proportion of Amman's inhabitants havePalestinian roots (urban or rural origin), and the two main demographic groups in the city today are Arabs of Palestinian or Jordanian descent. Other ethnic groups comprise about 2% of the population. There are no official statistics about the proportion of people of Palestinian or Jordanian descent.[104]
New arrivals consisting of Jordanians from the north and south of the country and immigrants from Palestine had increased the city's population from 30,000 in 1930 to 60,000 in 1947.[105] About 10,000 Palestinians, mostly fromSafed,Haifa andAcre, migrated to the city for economic opportunities before the1948 war.[106] Many of the immigrants from al-Salt from that time were originally fromNablus.[107] The 1948 war caused an exodus of urban Muslim and Christian Palestinian refugees, mostly fromJaffa,Ramla andLydda, to Amman,[106] whose population swelled to 110,000.[105] With Jordan's capture of theWest Bank during the war, many Palestinians from that area steadily migrated to Amman between 1950 and 1966, before another mass wave of Palestinian refugees from the West Bank moved to the city during the1967 War. By 1970, the population had swelled to an estimated 550,000.[105] A further 200,000 Palestinians arrived after their expulsion from Kuwait during the 1991Gulf War. Several largePalestinian refugee camps exist around the center of Amman.[108]
Because Amman lacks a deep-rooted native population, the city does not have a distinct Arabicdialect, although recently such a dialect utilizing the various Jordanian and Palestinian dialects, has been forming.[109] The children of immigrants in the city are also increasingly referring to themselves as "Ammani", unlike much of the first-generation inhabitants who identify more with their respective places of origin.[110]
Amman has a mostlySunni Muslim population, and the city contains numerousmosques.[111] Among the main mosques is the largeKing Abdullah I Mosque, built between 1982 and 1989. It is capped by a blue mosaicdome beneath which 3,000 Muslims may offer prayer. The Abu Darweesh Mosque, noted for its checkered black-and-white pattern, has an architectural style that is unique to Jordan.[112] The mosque is situated onJabal Ashrafieh, the highest point in the city. The mosque's interior is marked by light-colored walls and Persian carpets. During the 2004 Amman Message conference, edicts from various clergy-members afforded the following schools of thought as garnering collective recognition:Hanafi,Hanbali,Maliki, Shafi'i, Ja'fari, Zahiri, Zaydi,Ibadi, tassawuf-relatedSufism,Muwahhidism andSalafism.[113] Amman also has a smallDruze community.[114]
Large numbers ofChristians from throughout Jordan, particularly from al-Salt, have moved to Amman. NearbyFuheis is a predominantlyChristian town located to the northwest of the city.[115] A smallArmenian Catholic community of around 70 families is present in the city.[116]Ecclesiastical courts for matters of personal status are also located in Amman. A total of 16 historic churches are located inUmm ar-Rasas ruins inAl-Jeezah district; the site is believed to have initially served asRoman fortified military camps which gradually became a town around the 5th century AD. It has not been completely excavated. It was influenced by several civilizations including the Romans, Byzantines and Muslims. The site contains some well-preserved mosaic floors, particularly the mosaic floor of the Church of Saint Stephen.[117]
Downtown Amman, the city center area (known in Arabic asAl-Balad), has been dwarfed by the sprawling urban area that surrounds it. Despite the changes, much remains of its old character.Jabal Amman is a tourist attraction in old Amman, where the city's largest souks, museums, ancient constructions, monuments, and cultural sites are found. Jabal Amman also contains the famousRainbow Street and the culturalSouk Jara market.[118]
Residential buildings are limited to four stories above street level and if possible another four stories below, according to theGreater Amman Municipality regulations. The buildings are covered with thick white or beige limestone or sandstone.[119] The buildings usually have balconies on each floor, with the exception of the ground floor, which has a front and back yard. Some buildings make use ofMangalore tiles on the roofs or on the roof of covered porches. Hotels, towers and commercial buildings are either covered by stone, plastic or glass.[120]
New Abdali district hosts amall, aboulevard along with several hotels, commercial and residential towers. Valued at more than US$5 billion with two main phases, the district created a new visible center for Amman and act as the major business district for the city.[122]
The first phase, estimated at more than JD2.4 billion, and receiving about 20 million visitors annually, contains seven Itowers extending over an area of 1.03 million square metres. It attracts about 500 companies operating in 27 sectors, and provided a total of 15,000 job opportunities by 2023.[123]
A second phase was announced in May 2024, which will cover an area of 1.2 million square meters and is anticipated to create over 3,000 job opportunities each year, were outlined in the statement. This phase involves the construction of a multi-use conference center with a capacity for 25,000 people, as well as two towers that will include hotels, residential apartments, commercial centers, and advanced medical facilities.[124]
Amman is considered one of the most liberal cities in theArab world.[127] The city has become one of the most popular destinations for expatriates and college students who seek to live, study, or work in theMiddle East or the Arab world in general.[128] The city's culinary scene has changed from itsshawarma stands andfalafel joints to embrace many popular international restaurants and fast-food outlets such asAsian fusion restaurants, Frenchbistros and Italiantrattorias. The city has become famous for its fine dining scene among Western expatriates andPersian Gulf tourists.[129]
Souk Jara is one of the most famous outdoor markets managed by the Jabal Amman Residents Association (JARA).
Nightclubs, music bars andshisha lounges are present across Amman, changing the city's old image as the conservative capital of the kingdom. This burgeoning new nightlife scene is shaped by Jordan's young population.[132] In addition to the wide range of drinking and dancing venues on the social circuit of the city's affluent crowd, Amman hosts cultural entertainment events, including the annual Amman Summer Festival.Souk Jara is a Jordanian weeklyflea market event that occurs every Friday throughout the summer.[133]Sweifieh is considered to be the unofficial red-light district of Amman as it holds most of the city's nightclubs, bars.[134] Jabal Amman andJabal al-Luweibdeh are home to many pubs and bars as well, making the area popular among bar hoppers.[129]
Alcohol is widely available in restaurants, bars, nightclubs, and supermarkets.[135][136] There are numerous nightclubs and bars across the city, especially in West Amman. As of 2011[update], there were 77 registered nightclubs in Jordan (excluding bars and pubs), overwhelmingly located in the capital city.[137] In 2009, there were 222 registered liquor stores in Amman.[138]
Danielle Pergament ofThe New York Times described Ammani cuisine as a product of several cuisines in the region, writing that it combines "the bright vegetables from Lebanon, crunchy falafels from Syria, juicy kebabs from Egypt and, most recently, spicy meat dishes from Jordan's neighbor, Iraq. It's known as the food of theLevant – an ancient word for the area bounded by the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian peninsula. But the food here isn't just the sum of its calories. In this politically, religiously and ethnically fraught corner of the world, it is a symbol of bloodlines and identity."[139] However, the city's street food scene makes the Ammani cuisine distinctive.[2][140]
Amman is home to a growing number of foreign sports such asskateboarding andrugby; the latter has two teams based in the city: Amman Citadel Rugby Club and Nomads Rugby Club.[146] In 2014, German non-profit organizationMake Life Skate Life completed construction of the7Hills Skatepark, a 650 square meter concrete skatepark located atSamir Rifai park inDowntown Amman.[147]
The majority of Jordan's radio stations are based in Amman. The first radio station to originate in the city wasHunna Amman in 1959; it mainly broadcast traditionalBedouin music.[148] In 2000, Amman Net became the first de facto private radio station to be established in the country, despite private ownership of radio stations being illegal at the time.[149] After private ownership was legalized in 2002, several more radio stations were created.[150]
Most Jordanian newspapers and news stations are situated in Amman. Daily newspapers published in Amman includeAlghad,[151]Ad-Dustour,[152]The Jordan Times,[151] andAl Ra'i, the most circulated newspaper in the country.[153] In 2011,Al Ra'i was ranked the 5th most popular newspaper in the Arab world by Forbes Middle-East report.[154]Al-Arab Al-Yawm is the only daily pan-Arab newspaper in Jordan. The two most popular Jordanian TV channels,Ro'ya TV andJRTV, are based in Amman.[153]
The main airport serving Amman isQueen Alia International Airport, situated about 30 km (18.64 mi) south of Amman. Much smaller isAmman Civil Airport, a one-terminal airport that serves primarily domestic and nearby international routes and the army. Queen Alia International Airport is the majorinternational airport in Jordan and thehub forRoyal Jordanian, theflag carrier. Its expansion was recently done and modified, including the decommissioning of the old terminals and the commissioning of new terminals costing $700M, to handle over 16 million passengers annually.[158] It is now considered a state-of-the-art airport and was named 'the best airport in theMiddle East' for 2014 and 2015 and 'the best improvement in the Middle East' for 2014 byAirport Service Quality Survey, the world's leading airport passenger satisfaction benchmark program.[159]
Amman has an extensive road network. Eightroundabout "circles", which formerly marked neighborhoods, are used as landmarks.[38] The road network includes many bridges and tunnels due to the mountainous nature of the terrain. A leading example is theAbdoun Bridge, which spansWadi Abdoun and connects the4th Circle toAbdoun Circle. It is considered one of Amman's many landmarks and is the first curved suspended bridge to be built in the country.[38]
Abdoun Bridge, considered one of Amman's landmarks
Successive waves of refugees to the city has led to the rapid construction of new neighborhoods, but Amman's capacity for new or widened roads remains limited despite the influx. This has resulted in increasing traffic jams, particularly during summer when there are large numbers of tourists and Jordanian expatriates visiting.[160] In 2015, aring road encompassing the city was constructed, which aims to connect the northern and southern parts of the city in order for traffic to be diverted outside Amman and to improve the environmental conditions in the city.[161]
The city has frequent bus connections to other cities in Jordan, as well as to major cities in neighboring countries; the latter are also served by service taxis. Internal transport is served by a number of bus routes and taxis. Service taxis, which most often operate on fixed routes, are readily available and inexpensive. The two main bus and taxi stations are Abdali (near theKing Abdullah Mosque, theParliament and Palace of Justice) and the Raghadan Central Bus Station near the Roman theater in the city center. Popular Jordanian bus company services include JETT and Al-Mahatta. Taxis are the most common way to get around in Amman due their high availability and inexpensiveness.[162]
TheAmman Bus and theAmman Bus Rapid Transit public transportation systems currently serve the city. Construction work on the BRT system started in 2010, but was halted soon after amid feasibility concerns. Resuming in 2015, the first route of the BRT system was inaugurated in 2021, and the second in 2022. Another BRT routeconnecting Amman with Zarqa started operations in May 2024.[163]
The BRT system in Amman runs on 2 routes: the first fromSweileh in northwest Amman to the Ras Al-Ain area next todowntown Amman, and the second from Sweileh to Mahatta terminal in eastern Amman. Both routes meet at the Sports City intersection. The first route is currently served by three lines: 98, 99 and 100.[163] Ticket price for all lines of Amman Bus and Amman BRT are bought either online via the Amman Bus mobile application or as a rechargeable card in major terminals. Passengers scan their cards or QR codes on phone when boarding the bus, where the price ticket is subtracted from the available balance. The buses are air-conditioned, accessible, monitored with security cameras and have free internet service.[163]
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